Data collection instrument: The questionnaire

4.4.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of the questionnaire method

Collecting data by questionnaire has a number of advantages. Firstly, when large sample sizes are required for a quantitative study, a survey employing a questionnaire is relatively quick to administer and provides an inexpensive and efficient method of gathering data about attitudes (Walonick, 2004). Secondly, most people are familiar with this data collection format so participants usually do not need lengthy explanations about what they are required to do. Furthermore, if closed or multiple choice questions are used, it is fairly easy to enter the responses into a software package such as SPSS, which greatly facilitates the analysis process.

However, this method of data collection also has some disadvantages. Walonick (2004) notes that survey response rate can range from 10% to 90% depending on the type used and there is a high risk of obtaining a low response rate to questionnaires. However, owing to the method of distribution and administration of the questionnaire (see 4.4.1.4 above and 4.4.3 below), this risk was avoided and the response rate was 100%. According to Walonick (2004) design can play a key role in determining the success of this research method so careful thought was given to the design of the questionnaire to make it easy for respondents to

respondents to misunderstand questions so that these are incorrectly completed. Also it is important to plan how the questionnaire will be administered to maximise the numbers of responses. In this study, the questionnaire was piloted to ensure the optimal design and to eliminate any potential problems with administration.

4.4.2.1 Questionnaire development process

The questionnaire was chosen as the main tool used for collecting quantitative data. The process of development and validation of questionnaire is based on the approaches recommended by Churchill and Iacobucci (2002). Figure 38 illustrates the simple procedure that was used as a guideline for constructing an effective questionnaire.

Figure 8: Guideline for constructing an effective questionnaire (based on Churchill and Iacobucci 2002).

In terms of specifying the information sought, as previously noted the questionnaire was designed to investigate student language learning attitudes and needed to ascertain:

Students’ attitudes towards the English language in general Students’ attitudes towards native speakers of English and Students’ attitudes towards learning EFL.

For the purposes of this study, attitude will be considered to be a combined construct made up of a student’s understandings, perceptions, beliefs, and previous experiences of learning EFL as previously explored in the literature review.

1

• Specify Information Sought

2

• Create questionnaire items

3

• Decide form of response to the questions

4

• Determine wording for each question

5

• Establish question sequence

6

• Design layout and physical characteristics of the questionnaire

7

• Validate questionnaire

In terms of creating questionnaire items, the initial pool of items was created from the review of literature dealing with empirical studies on attitudes towards FLL and was adapted from examples used in previous studies which aimed to explore the attitude of students towards English as a language, towards native speakers of English and towards learning EFL (Gardner: 1979; Clement and Kruidenier: 1983; Gardner and Lambert: 1972; Gardner: 1985; Al-Busairi: 1992; Mallalah: 2000). Where necessary, the wording of questionnaire items was modified to suit the target population of the study and to make them more relevant to the specific research context. (See Appendix D for the English version of the questionnaire)

With the exceptions of some personal data questions and the final section of the questionnaire, a predetermined response accompanies each closed-ended item. In order to maintain uniformity, regardless of response type, a five- point Likert scale was applied to all the items in the questionnaire, each response being allocated a score ranging from one to five. Thus, strongly disagree = 1 and strongly agree = 5. This is the most frequently used scale in studies examining attitudes.

The original draft of the questionnaire was in English, since this was based on instruments used in previous studies published in this language. This also meant that feedback on this draft could be provided more easily. Although it was originally designed in English, the final version of the questionnaire was provided to participants in MSA, their mother tongue, for a number of reasons. Most importantly, there was a concern that some of the learners would not fully understand all of the questions and this might hinder their comprehension and prevent them from responding freely, or in a way which failed to accurately reflect their attitude towards a particular item. (See appendix G for the Arabic version of the questionnaire). It was also considered a possibility that respondents with lower levels of English proficiency might have felt intimidated if faced with an English language version and in addition that this might have made them feel they were being tested in some way, meaning that responses might have been less honest. Moreover, in the final section of the questionnaire, section E, students were asked to provide any further comments and individuals usually feel most at ease expressing their thoughts in their L1. Although it would have been possible to provide the questions in English and ask for responses in Arabic, the single language solution was deemed to be less confusing for the respondents.

In order to validate the questionnaire, after this had been constructed, the researcher’s supervisor provided detailed feedback on an initial draft. Other students in the School of Education at the University of Huddersfield, particularly those with research interests in L2 motivation, were asked to give their opinion about the questionnaire’s wording, comprehensibility and suitability of the questionnaire items and to provide comments on its general user-friendliness.

Following their feedback and discussion, any necessary changes were made. Attention was also given to producing a user-friendly questionnaire that could be relatively quickly and easily completed by participants. The final pilot version took approximately 25 minutes to complete. In addition, following Ryan (2008, p. 151), special attention was paid to ensure that: “Clear

instructions were given regarding the administration of the questionnaire”.

The anonymity of participants was assured.

The first draft of the questionnaire, which consisted of 38 items was then translated from English into MSA (the mother tongue of the target participants) by the researcher herself and this version was checked by two Arabic/English translation specialists based in the Department of Translation at the University of Benghazi to ensure it accurately rendered the sense of the original questionnaire items and there were no linguistic or typographical errors or ambiguities in the text of the questionnaire to be distributed to the study participants. They checked the translation and suggested rewording of some items. This Arabic version was then finally submitted to the scrutiny of a professor of Education at the University of Benghazi to ensure that it was fit for purpose. The questionnaire used in the study was piloted before distribution.

4.4.2.2 The pilot version

Conducting a pilot study before the main study allows any potential problems in the form of the questionnaire to be identified and corrected. It also helps the researcher to refine data collection plans with respect to both the content of data and the procedures to be followed (Gill and Johnson, 2002). The Arabic version of the questionnaire was piloted in January 2012 with 56 first- year students (males = 49; females = 7) from the Faculty of Engineering, who like the target participants were in their first year of studying full-time at the University of Benghazi. This pilot study was used to check whether distribution, completion and collection of the questionnaire was feasible in the allotted length of time, thanks to the collaboration of a colleague who distributed the questionnaire to students in their faculties and departments. It

also provided the opportunity to check whether the instructions are sufficiently clear, any questions might prove to be ambiguous or misleading and need modification. After completing the questionnaire, students were invited to provide any suggestions they had concerning possible improvements to any aspect of the questionnaire. The pilot study raised several issues. A number of items were added, rewritten, or removed.

4.4.2.3 The final version

The final version of the questionnaire consisted of five parts. Section A requires personal information regarding age, gender, and department/faculty, self-assessed level of proficiency in English, length of time learning EFL and the circumstances under which students began studying EFL. This information was used to provide a snapshot of the cohort and to identify any potentially unusual features of the sample. It also provides the opportunity for future research to be carried out which would map variables such as age, gender or subject discipline against the other dimensions of the questionnaire. Students were asked to respond to series of statements, 30 in total, on the basis of a five-point Likert scale, ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree. All questionnaires were anonymous. Section E gave respondents the opportunity to make any comments they wished on any aspect of the questionnaire. The English version of the final questionnaire can be found in (Appendix D). Each section of the questionnaire was designed to examine a main theme as follows: Section B was used to measure respondents’ attitudes towards the English language in general; Section C served to gauge student attitudes towards learning EFL and Section D looks at student attitudes towards native speakers of English. Table 2 provides a brief commentary on each of the items Q1-30. See appendix D for the English version of the questionnaire

Table 2: Questionnaire items SECTION B PURPOSE ITEMS Q1-10 POSI TIVI TY /NEGATIVI T Y OF FE ELI NG S TOWA RDS ENGLI SH

Measures degree of positivity of feelings towards English as a language.

Q1. I find the English language interesting. Q2. I like speaking English.

Measures degree of positivity of feelings towards the culture of English language-speaking countries.

Q3. I like watching English and American TV channels.

Measures degree of positivity of feelings towards English as a language in relation to mother tongue. It does not ask respondents to do this in relation to a particular domain (e.g. I prefer English to Arabic for X activity) so is purely measuring feelings not instrumental orientation.

Q4. I prefer English to Arabic.

Measures degree of positivity of feelings towards students’ own language and culture. Students with a high degree of positivity towards their own language/culture will not necessarily have negative attitudes towards other languages/cultures but this may imply a more instrumental rather than integrative attitude to FLL.

Q7. I have strong ties with my native language and culture.

Measures degree of negativity of feelings towards English as a language and the culture of English language-speaking countries. Students answering Agree/Strongly Agree may wish to learn EFL for purely instrumental reasons but will not have integrative attitudes to FLL.

Q8. I feel that English poses a threat to my mother tongue and culture.

Measures degree of positivity of feelings towards students’ own language.

Q9. I believe that Arabic is more beautiful than other languages. INSTR UME N TAL ORI EN TATIO N TO EFL

Measures degree of instrumental orientation related to social recognition (Gardner and Lambert 1972: 14 cited in Baker 1992:31-32)

Q5. I believe that being able to speak English enhances my status.

Measures degree of instrumental orientation related to a need for achievement, albeit that of one’s children. It is also linked to behavioural intention and indicates the degree of ‘readiness for action’ in relation to FLL attitudes.

Q6. In the future, I hope to put my children in a private English school so that they will learn to speak English fluently.

Measures degree of instrumental orientation and is likely to be related to occupational rather than personal reasons since most Libyans currently travel for study or work.

Q10 I think English will be very useful when travelling abroad. SECTION C PURPOSE ITEMS Q11-20 INSTRU M ENTA L ORI EN TATI ON TO

EFL Measures degree of instrumental orientation focusing

on general perception of utility of EFL.

Q11. I feel that learning English is very useful to me.

Measures degree of instrumental orientation focusing on a specific skill which is not currently taught on the course but might usefully be included in the new syllabus.

Q19. I wish I could read

magazines and newspapers in English. AFFE CT IV E

These two ‘mirror image’ statements (Gendall and Hoek 1990) measure the affective dimension in relation to learning EFL but are also intended to give an indication as to whether in general terms students’ responses are valid. If students are responding truthfully and thoughtfully to these items they should produce ‘mirror’ image results.

Q12. I dislike learning English.

Q15.I like learning English. POSI TIVI TY /NEGATIVI T Y OF FEELIN G S TOWA RDS LEARNI NG EFL

Measures degree of positivity/negativity towards learning EFL. However, since no element of instrumentality is specified, this item emphasises “love of learning for learning’s sake” and may indicate high intrinsic motivation for EFL learning.

Q13. I would like to learn as much English as possible.

Measures degree of positivity/negativity of feelings towards learning EFL in relation to perceived utility, indicating an instrumental orientation to language learning.

Q14. I would rather spend my time studying subjects other than English.

Measures degree of positivity/negativity of feelings towards learning English and may also indicate instrumental orientation in language learning.

Q16. It is of no benefit for me to learn English. Measures degree of positivity/negativity of feelings

towards learning English and may also indicate instrumental orientation in language learning since it focuses specifically on continuing EFL studies in relation to study.

Q17. I plan to continue learning English after my obligatory EFL studies at University have ended.

Measures degree of positivity/negativity of feelings towards learning English and may also indicate instrumental orientation in language learning since it implies commitment to continuing EFL studies in relation to study.

Q18. When I leave the university, I shall give up the study of English entirely.

Measures degree of positivity/negativity of feelings towards learning English and may also indicate degree of positivity of feelings towards students’ own language.

Q20. I think learning English from an early age will have a negative impact on proficiency in Arabic. SECTION D PURPOSE ITEMS Q21-30 CONATIV E

Measures the conative or readiness for action component in terms of how students act in relation to their thoughts, beliefs, feelings and emotions concerning native speakers. Items Q29 and Q25 might also indicate an integrative orientation to learning EFL whilst Q21 which specifies a purpose for meeting English speakers might also suggest an instrumental orientation to learning EFL.

Q21. I would like to meet native speakers of English and engage in conversations with them.

Q29. I would like to meet as many native speakers of English as possible.

Q25. In the future, I would like to live in an English-speaking country. AFFE CT IV E

All these items are intended to gauge the affective element of attitude related to feelings and emotions about English speakers, either favourable or unfavourable. Items Q22 and Q23 also function as

Q22. I have an unfavourable attitude towards English speakers.

‘mirror image’ statements (Gendall and Hoek 1990). These items also indicate the general degree of positivity/negativity of feelings towards native speakers of English.

Q23. I like English speakers.

Q30. I like watching English-language films that reflect the culture of British and American societies.

Q28. I hope Libya will maintain good relations with English-speaking countries.

COGNI

TIVE

Gauges the cognitive constituent of attitude linked to thoughts and beliefs about English speakers, either favourable or unfavourable.

Q24 I think native speakers of English are dishonest.

Q26. I think English speakers are well educated.

Q27. I think English speakers are sociable.

Feedback was sought on the final English and Arabic versions of the questionnaire as previously and any necessary changes made or errors corrected in keeping with suggestions provided.

4.4.3 Procedure

When the final version of the questionnaire was ready, this was distributed over the course of one week in lectures in all six faculties. Libyan colleagues had cautioned against using email to distribute the questionnaires as many students had limited internet access. Questionnaires accompanied by consent forms and briefing sheets were distributed by the researcher herself plus a colleague before the lecture commenced, and some 20 minutes were allocated for the students to complete the questionnaire in every lecture. Participants were re-informed about why the information was needed, how it would be used and stored, and how it related to the study. Although the fact that the researcher herself administered the questionnaires proved time- consuming, it had a number of advantages. Distributing the questionnaire personally allowed the researcher to clarify any queries. It also facilitated explanation of items which were not understood, to put respondents at ease,

answering any queries and reminding them about the importance of the research and reassuring them about confidentiality.

There was a danger that this method of administration, with the researcher in face-to-face attendance, caused some respondents to give more ‘accommodating’ (pro-English) responses than they otherwise would have done if the questionnaire had been conducted by distance means. To minimise this possibility, the researcher tried to put the students at ease and assured them, that completed questionnaires could not be traced to individuals. Both the conduct of the researcher while they were completing the questionnaire (chatting at the front to the room with the lecturer) and the large size of the groups completing the questionnaire at any one time (50+) should have increased their assurance. Nevertheless, the possibility of some faint effect of this face-to-face method cannot be completely discounted. All questionnaires were collected again at the end of the session by the researcher herself plus a colleague. This considerably shortened the overall time required for data collection as it eliminated the time needed to allow participants to complete and return questionnaires and also meant 100% response rates.

4.4.3.1 Ethical considerations

This research needed to take into account a number of ethical considerations. A report on any ethical issues raised by this study was submitted to the University of Huddersfield School Research and Ethics Panel and ethical approval for this research was granted in December 2011. Once this clearance had been received, a process of informed consent was undertaken which involved University officials, faculty staff and students. First, written information about the study’s aims and processes and copies of consent forms were sent to relevant officials and staff at the University of Benghazi