DATA COLLECTION METHODS INTERVIEWS

Grounded theory approach is concerned with how data can be sought and analysed. The decision was made to choose interviews as the main method of collecting data for this study since the grounded theory approach is one of the interpretative approaches (qualitative in nature) and was appropriated to be adopted as a tool for the investigation in social exploratory studies (Byrne, 2011). The choice to have a face to face interview for data collection may take the form of structured, semi structured or unstructured interviews, although the term ‗unstructured‘ is misleading as there can be no such thing as interviews without any structure whatsoever as the researcher will always have some agenda (Brown and Dowling, 1998). The main concern, however, is for the researcher to understand human experiences at a holistic level. In order to conduct the interviews in a much more comprehensive and versatile manner, a relevant review of the literature of the research background is needed (explained in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 respectively). This is in parallel with the data being analysed and subsequently tried to some ‗hands on‘ experience from several earlier interviews with the respondents.

Expanding on the research aim and objectives that guides the entire data collection process of this research, most of questions for the interview refers to the background information from the literature review which was done earlier in the research (Gorra and Kornilaki, 2010). The questions that are being asked to the interviewees are not always referred from a standardised list of questions posed to all interviewees. Instead, a list of semi-structured questions was prepared as both a guide and reminder of the areas that the research was going to cover for the interview (Strauss and Corbin, 1990)

All in all, 40 in-depth interviews were conducted for this research. The first 15 interviews were conducted for a case study in Manchester, United Kingdom from the year 2011 and the second 15 interviews were done for a case study in Malacca, Malaysia, in early 2012. The following 10 interviews were then continued from the case studies. At this time, the line of enquiry for these interviews tended to focus on developments that had occurred since the first interview. Specific aspects of the local communities‘ experience were considered that would fill the gaps in developing the emergent themes. These continuous interviews were used as a platform to consider and correlate both the emerging themes and the initial conceptual framework for schools to become a community hub.

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During interviews with subsequent new interviewees, the emergent theory had become quite established, and the probability of a follow-up interview became more remote. Consequently, in these cases the grounded theory can be related to interviewees as works in progress, and the interview can be terminated and comments solicited (Mack and Woodsong, 2005).

The interviews mainly used semi structured questions. The benefit of using these types of questions is that it provides a flexible approach to deal with emerging issues and provides new and unexpected insights. It also ensures that the most important subjects are covered in the interview.

All interviews were mainly conducted in English for Case Study 1 and were conducted in the homes of the interviewees, but some, by interviewees‘ choice, took place elsewhere. In Case Study 2, however, the interviews were conducted in Malay language as everyone preferred to speak the language to express their views and feelings towards their school‘s services and community relationship. Respondents felt they were most comfortable in a setting they were familiar with. Due to this reason, most interviews were conducted in different places.

The interviews lasted 40 to 60 minutes and were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. All the interviews were recorded with the permission of the interviewee. The recording allows for an accurate record of the interview. It was then transferred to a computer and transcribed. The transcription was saved in one file folder with backup copies prior to be imported into NViVo 8, qualitative data analysis software. The interviews, some of the respondents‘ body languages and impressions were observed by the researcher. This is to help the researcher to frame the important keywords for the next question. Every time the interview took place, the researcher took notes relating to important points and impressions from the interviewee , especially when the emphasis was on the community‘s relationship with the experience of school services in their area (Punch, 2005b).

4.6.1.1. Sampling Strategy

In designing the research plan in grounded theory, a number of issues have to be considered in the mind of the researcher, one of which will be the sampling strategy (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000). The development of this strategy requires the researcher to ask questions around the ‗who, where and when‘ of the data collection.

Coyne (1997) in Strauss and Corbin (1998) argues that sampling procedures in qualitative research are more flexible than those prescribed for quantitative studies. There are two

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sampling strategies that are commonly used in qualitative research. The first one is random probability sampling, for example, simple random samplings, stratified random sampling and cluster sampling. The second is purposeful sampling, for example, extreme or deviant sampling, intensity sampling, maximum variation sampling, homogeneous sampling, typical case sampling, critical case sampling, snowball or chain sampling, criterion sampling, theory based sampling, confirming and disconfirming cases and convenience sampling(Mayring, 2007). In grounded theory methodology, there are three main methods of sampling that are normally used, namely: convenience sampling, purposive sampling and theoretical sampling (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). Table 4.2 shows the criteria of these three methods of sampling.

Table 4.2: The Grounded Theory Sampling Methods (Source: Birks and Mills (2011)

4.6.1.1.1. Snowball Sampling

This research study has adopted one of the three main sampling methods for data collection. Snowball sampling, which is part of the ‗purposive sampling‘ method, was used for this research to facilitate the exploration and discovery of relevant issues pertaining to the social world under investigation (Hendriks et al., 1992, Faugier and Sargeant, 1997). Charmaz (2006) suggests that in undertaking ‗purposive sampling‘, the researcher will pass between data gathering and data analysis until no new information emerges i.e. a category reaches a point of saturation (Charmaz, 2006).

Snowball sampling, in simple terms, is often known as a technique for finding research subjects or person. The process can be started from the first subject who gives the researcher

Grounded Theory Methods

Of Sampling Criteria

1. Convenience Sampling

A type of non-probability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, readily available and convenient.

2. Purposive Sampling

The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be appropriate for the study. This is primarily used when there are a limited number of people that have expertise in the area being researched.

3. Theoretical Sampling

The researcher must have sufficient data to be able to generate and ‗ground‘ the theory in the research context, i.e. to create theoretical explanation of what is happening in the situation, without having any data that do not fit the theory

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the name or characteristic of another subject or person, who in turn provides the name or characteristic of a third, and so on (Vogt, 1999).

Snowball sampling can be used as a recruitment method that employs research into participants' social networks to access the right population. Snowball sampling has mostly been used in some qualitative methods because the population under investigation was 'hard to reach' either due to low numbers of potential participants or the sensitivity of the topic (Faugier and Sargeant, 1997).

In most situations, snowball sampling can be used routinely to conduct qualitative research, mainly through open and semi-structure interviews. Snowball sampling can be applied for two main purposes. Firstly, if the aim of the research is generally explorative, qualitative and descriptive, then snowball sampling offers practical advantages (Hendriks et al., 1992, Atkinson, 2001). The following key objective of snowball sampling is to implement it as a more formal methodology for making inference about a group of individuals who are difficult to identify through the purpose of descending methods, such as household surveys (Atkinson, 2001). Figure 4.5 shows on the sample of snowball map.

Figure 4.5: The Snowball Map Source: Gliner J.A and G.A Morgan (2000)

The most important part of snowball sampling lies in its ability to uncover aspects of social experience often hidden from both the researcher‘s and lay person‘s view of social life.

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