Data collection methods

According to Yin (2012:51), the most common data collection methods in case study research are interviews, direct participant observation, participant observation, documentation, archival records and physical artefacts. Case studies are intensive investigations of a single unit or a small number of entities and they usually involve the collection of data over extended periods of time (Miles, Huberman & Saldana, 2014:11; Polit & Beck, 2010:282). The multiple methods of data collection in this study were in-depth, individual, phenomenological interviews, observation and field notes. Data collection commenced after entry into the field was permitted by the ethics committees of the University of Johannesburg and the National Health Research Review Board in Eswatini.

a) In-depth phenomenological individual interviews

Interviewing is a skill that is important and expected among qualitative researchers.

As noted by Englander (2012:14), phenomenological researchers select the interview as a means of data collection due to their interest in the phenomena as experienced by the participants. The researcher followed the guidelines of interviewing as outlined by Kvale and Brinkman (2009:5) and Englander (2012:27).

Additionally, interview sessions require preparation, particularly on the part of the researcher (Rule & John, 2011:64). In order to conduct quality interviews and consequently receive high-quality data, the researcher needs to prepare for the interviews, apply interpersonal communication skills and also review some guidelines for conducting interviews (Brayda & Boyce, 2014:13). The following aspects of preparation and skill were applied before and during the interview sessions:

55 i. A conducive environment

For a majority of participants, it is vital to have an interview in a quiet environment with minimal distractions (Edwards & Holland, 2013:43). Since this study dealt with a very sensitive topic and a vulnerable population, it was critical for the researcher to conduct the interviews in a place where the female adolescent would feel comfortable and be protected from accidental disclosure of the HIV status, and consequently HIV-related stigma and discrimination. As such, the interviews were conducted in the homes of the participants away from the disturbances of the community.

ii. Nature and purpose of the study was explained

To enhance the understanding of a study as a whole, it is imperative for the researcher to unhurriedly explain the nature of the study, along with the purpose and objectives to the participants (Manti & Licari, 2018:146). This enhances cooperation from the participants from the onset, particularly because they would be aware of the procedures involved and what is expected of them. In this study, the participant information sheet was read to the grandmothers in SiSwati to enhance their understanding of the study. For female adolescents, the information sheet was given to them to read in their preferred language. A time for questions was allowed, and these were answered truthfully and to the satisfaction of the participants. The consent statement was read to participants with the aim of reminding them of their rights as participants.

iii. Interviews conducted in the language preferred by the participant

Participants are better able to express themselves in their mother tongue. To ensure that the interview sessions yielded the thick descriptions of the experiences of living with HIV and caring in the context of HIV, participants were afforded the liberty of having the interview conducted in either SiSwati or English.

There are various sources of evidence for case study research; however, Yin (2014:11) asserts that the interview is the most important source of case study evidence. In-depth interviews are a useful method for examining the social context from the participants’ perspective (Silverman, 2016:56). Phenomenological studies focus mainly on the meaning of the lived experiences of human beings (Burns &

56 Grove, 2013:27; Polit & Beck, 2010:263). In this study, the focus was on the lived experiences of the female adolescent living with HIV and their grandmothers who care for them. Adolescents living with HIV are a unique group (Silverman, 2016:54) that are at risk of stigma and discrimination, so the researcher made a sincere attempt to explain the purpose of the study and to establish a rapport with the adolescents in order to facilitate the flow of the interviews. Rapport in a qualitative study is particularly important. Thus, written consent was obtained from both female adolescents and grandmothers before the commencement of the interviews (Dhai &

McQuiod-Mason, 2011:14-15).

When interviewed in places where they feel comfortable, participants are able to freely talk about their experiences (Edwards & Holland, 2013:45). Female adolescents were interviewed at home with their grandmothers. According to Polit and Beck (2010:261), qualitative researchers collect their data in real-world naturalistic settings. Female adolescents were interviewed alone, and the grandmothers were interviewed alone. This was done to ensure that participants were comfortable and at ease and it also promoted freedom of expression. Field notes were taken during the interview sessions.

The in-depth, phenomenological, individual interviews commenced with the single, broad, open-ended question: “How is it for you to live with HIV?” for the female adolescent and for the grandmothers the opening question was: “How is it for you to care for a female adolescent living with HIV?” The interviews proceeded in a conversational style guided by the open-ended question. Yin (2014:110) notes that the researcher has two main responsibilities during interviews. One is following the line of inquiry as reflected in the research protocol, and the other is asking conversational questions in an unbiased manner. During the interviews, non-threatening questions were asked.

The use of in-depth interviews allows for the collection of rich, thick data in a short period of time. The interviews lasted 40 to 60 minutes. The interviews were audio-recorded with the permission of the participants in order to capture an accurate verbatim record of the interviews (Yin, 2014:110). According to Silverman (2016:54), the meaning systems of adolescents differ from those of adults, hence the

57 researcher probed during the interviews for the purpose of clarification and further information.

To facilitate a conversational style during the interviews, the following communication skills were applied:

Active listening

Active listening is a skill that all qualitative researchers should possess. It refers to the researcher’s ability to capture the message of the participant during the interview process (Edwards & Holland, 2013:72). It involves being attuned, alert and attentive to what the participant is saying; both verbally and non-verbally (Edwards & Holland, 2013:72). The message can be transmitted verbally or non-verbally. Attentive listening demonstrates an interest in the participant’s account and prompts the participant to elaborate further.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is repeating what the participant has said in the researcher’s own words for the purpose of seeking clarification (De Vos, et al. 2015:345).

Probing and exploring

Probing is an attempt by the researcher to elicit more information from the participant (De Vos, et al. 2015:345). Statements such as: “tell me more about…”, or the How?

Where? Who? type of questions can be used to effectively probe a participant for more information. Probing is particularly used when the participant’s responses lack clarity, depth or detail, and the researcher wishes to have the participant expand and elaborate on what they have said. Probing is useful when conducting interviews with adolescents. Silverman (2016:54) states that adolescents have different meaning systems, so the researcher should always strive to ensure that he/she seeks clarification and elaboration from the adolescent to avoid interpreting statements in the researcher’s adult meaning system.

Summarisation

When summarising, the researcher synthesises the main points obtained from the interview and repeats them verbally to the participants in order to ensure that she/he

58 understood everything that was communicated during the interview. The response of the participant is particularly important. For summarisation to serve its purpose, the interviewer and the participant must agree with the summary. In instances where the researcher and the participant do not agree with the summary, clarification may be provided which adds to the rich, thick data.

b) Observation and Fieldnotes

Field notes were written during the interview sessions to record behaviours and occurrences in the context that may not have been captured by the audio-recorder.

Field notes served as another source of data and were typed up neatly and incorporated into the transcriptions for analysis. Yin (2014:118) documented three principles of data collection aimed at maximising the sources of evidence. One of the principles requires the use of multiple sources of evidence to achieve triangulation.

Triangulation allows the researcher to address a broader range of issues within the topic under investigation, develop converging lines of inquiry and allows for validation of data (Yin, 2014:119-120). In this study, the in-depth individual interviews with female adolescents and grandmothers, and the use of observation and field notes ensured data triangulation.

Field notes contain, among other things, a description of what was observed by the researcher in the field and anything that is deemed worth noting by the researcher (Patton, 2015:387). Field notes are a significant part of the data collection process in qualitative research. Patton (2015:387) asserts that field notes are descriptive in nature and thus should contain descriptive information that will allow the researcher to return to observation during analysis.

Though field notes are points noted by the researcher during and immediately after an interview session, they must be included in the analysis since they contain vital information that may not be captured by the audio-recorder (Ermeson, Fretz & Shaw, 2011:25). The purpose of field notes is to capture the researcher’s experiences of the field in terms of what the physical setting was like, who was present, the description of the social interactions that took place and what other activities took place in the setting (Patton, 2015:387). That is why scholars suggest that field notes

59 should be written immediately after the interview session when the situation is still fresh in the researcher’s memory to avoid problems associated with recall (De Vos, et al. 2015:335-336). In this study, field notes were written by the researcher during the interview sessions, and a summary of the interview was written immediately after each interview session.

i) Observational notes

These are used to capture the verbal and non-verbal behaviour of participants as they occur during the interviews (De Vos, et al. 2015:410). Observational notes provide more information about what actually happened during the interview sessions. These were noted by the researcher after clarifying observations with participants.

ii) Personal notes

These are defined as the notes about the researcher’s own reactions, reflections and experiences. It includes the researcher’s feelings about the research (De Vos, et al.

2015:410).

iii) Methodological notes

These are also referred to as operational notes (De Vos, et al. 2015:410). These are instructions to oneself, including critique of one’s tactics and reminders about methodologies that may be useful in future research, improvements in data collection and quality of interviews. Mainly, operational notes provide details that are necessary to understand the data, clarifying what happened, what was heard, seen and experienced by the researcher.

iv) Theoretical notes

These are conscious, purposeful and systematic attempts by the researcher to derive meaning from the observational notes. This process involves a critical reflection of what took place, thoughts and experiences. It also involves the reflections on the dimensions and deeper meaning of concepts (De Vos, et al.

2015:410).

60 2.6.1.7 Case record

A case record was compiled that indicated the case study participants, the data collection methods used, and the questions asked. In Table 2.1, the case record is presented.

Table 2.1: Case Record

PARTICIPANTS DATA COLLECTION QUESTIONS

Female adolescents living

In case study research where multiple case studies are used, several types of data are collected making data analysis a complex and challenging endeavour (Yin, 2014:133). Data analysis is defined as the management and reduction of data to produce meaning and draw conclusions about a phenomenon under study (Willis, et al. 2016:1196). The intention of data analysis is to organise data into meaningful units or interpretations of a framework that describe the phenomena being studied (Grove, et al. 2013:25). To ensure that data analysis is conducted in a credible and plausible manner, Turner (2010:759) suggests that all data be incorporated into the