Data Collection Methods

Primary research is the method of unearthing original data. It can be quite expensive and time consuming to conduct. However, the data which is sourced is original. In this research the primary research methods take the form of interviews and surveys. Interviews were conducted with 17 managers in IPS organisations and one serving Minister for State in Ireland.

The interview is a two-way conversation initiated by the researcher in order to obtain information that is relevant to their research from a participant, the interviewee (Cooper, D., Schindler, P., 2003). Denscombe (1998) however states that interviews are much more than a conversation. Stringer (2007) states the interview is a reflective process that allows the researcher to delve into the experiences of the interviewee through an informal conversation. Interviews are a typical data collection tool. They can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured and can be conducted in a formal or

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informal manner; and provide more in-depth data on views and experiences. Good qualitative interviewing is a skill. Mason (1996) believes the qualitative interview is a much more complex and exhausting task to plan and carry out than developing and using a structured survey.

There are numerous positive and negative aspects when using interviews as a method of data collection. They provide much deeper insight into certain topics and provide more information than could be obtained from a survey. They are useful for capturing the true reaction of a respondent to certain issues. Interviews also allow the interviewee to raise relevant issues that may help in furthering the research that could not be raised through a survey. Interviews permit the interviewer to gain the perspective of the interviewee and get an understanding of their world.

The possible challenges that an interview can generate is that, when transcribing interviews, the interviewer may not give the intended meaning. It is important that pauses, stressed words and tone of speech are taken into account to ensure the correct interpretation.

There were 18 interviews conducted for this study. The majority of them were held with senior managers in public sector organisations. However when senior managers were unavailable, middle managers suggested by senior management were interviewed. The interviews allowed the researcher to gain information on the manager’s collective views of innovative practices in the public sector and also their own personal views on innovation within their organisations. Each interview contained questions which sought to answer each of the research questions. Interviews also allowed for a great amount of information to be received and allowed for some points made by management to be expanded upon when required.

The organisations interviewed for the research were  An Garda Síochána

 Local Authority (3 interviews)  Enterprise Ireland

 Property Registration Authority of Ireland (PRAI)  Department of Agriculture, Food and Marine  Department of Social Protection

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 Primary Education Sector  Second Level Education sector

 Third Level Education sector (3 interviews) and  Prison Service.

An interview was also conducted with a Government Minister who has a strong background in innovation and which affects his role as Minister today.

Due to the scale, and diverse roles and responsibilities of some of these organisations, more than one interview was held within some of them. These are namely the HSE, the Third Level Education sector and the Local Authority.

Cooper and Schindler (2003) state that for an interview to be successful the participant must possess the information being targeted by the investigative questions, the participant must understand his or her role in the interview as the provider of accurate information and also they must perceive adequate motivation to cooperate. Interviews were perceived to be the most appropriate form of research to answer the research question.

A lot of thought and skill was put into the developing questions for the interviews. The phrasing of questions was considered as were the wording of the questions. This was to avoid confusing the interviewee and being suggestive of a response to the questions. The questions asked were analysed to ensure they didn’t portray the opinions of the researcher on the topic. Questions asked at an interview must not imply judgement or criticism (Stringer 2007). The questions were arranged so that a free flowing conversation could ensue. This was to make the interviewee more relaxed and more willing to disclose information. A copy of the interview questions can be found in the Appendix D of this research.

All interviews were arranged in advance to allow the participant to plan and organise before the interview. A semi-structured guideline of questions covering the main themes obtained from literature was used. A brief outline of the themes was sent to the interviewee prior to the interview so they could have information to hand. This structure ensured that the researcher’s main issues were discussed and also allowed for exploration on issues which arose (Denscombe 1998).

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The one to one interviews allowed for a more relaxed atmosphere and also allowed the interviewees to be more unreserved and to talk more freely. The open ended questions gave the interviews a conversational tone. Interviews began with a statement of purpose of the research, and written consent was sought from the interviewees that they were willing to proceed with the interview. This consent form also gave permission for the use of audio equipment at each interview and gave permission for notes to be taken if required during the interview. Interviewees also signed a confidentiality statement so their name would be withheld from the study. This form can be found in Appendix C.

A semi-formal approach to the interview was used to allow the researcher to ensure that the interviewee was confident that they could trust the researcher to keep information confidential.

It was important to foresee any challenges that may have arisen for the researcher as the interviewer and that the interviewer was able to think on their feet in case challenging issues arose during the interview. Mason (1996) suggested recording practice interviews and scrutinising them before the ‘real’ interviews, which was done. It was important at all times to remember what people have said to you and what the researcher had asked them. This saved the embarrassment of asking the same thing twice. In the interviews some managers answered more than one question at a time, so it was important the researcher was able to move through the question guide accordingly. It is also important for the researcher to not interrupt the interviewee and to achieve a good balance of talking and listening. Observing, picking up verbal and non-verbal cues (looking at body language and demeanour) can also add to the interview. This is why note taking was used at interviews. Mason (1996) also suggests that being able to manage the social situation the interview involves is important for the researcher. It was important to have a practice interview, not only to ensure the questions worked and were understood but also so that the interview situation could be managed.

It is often the case that the mere presence of the researcher may alter the behaviour of those being studied. This requires a lot of skill on behalf of the researcher and both empathy and intuition are needed. Some theorists and researchers suggest that the researcher should only wear their research hat. While this was felt to be important to the researcher, it was also felt it was important to build a rapport with the managers being interviewed.

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3.8.2 Qualitative Sampling Plan

Qualitative research primarily employs non probability sampling. (Daniel 2012, p. 14)

3.8.2.1 Sample Population

The target population of a study is the ‘set of elements one desires to apply the findings of the study’ (Daniels 2012, p. 9). The population for the qualitative research approach of this study were managers in IPS organisations and are outlined at Table 3.2.

3.8.2.2 Sampling frame

A good sampling frame would identify all members of the target population only once, and have no other entries, but also include auxiliary information that may be used on making sampling choices. ‘A good sampling frame would be complete, accurate, up-to-date, reliable, and convenient to use’. (Daniel 2012, p. 13)

The availability of an appropriate sampling frame is critical in making sampling choices. ‘It can help the researcher determine whether to use non-probability sampling or probability sampling’ (Daniel 2012, p. 12). ‘Qualitative research primarily employs non probability sampling’ (Daniel 2012, p. 14).

A sampling frame for the IPS was not available to the researcher and time and budget resources did not allow for the construction of one. ‘Locating, generating and cleaning a sampling frame may be very time consuming and expensive’ (Daniel 2012, p. 76). A sampling frame is ‘not required for non-probability sampling’ (Daniel 2012).

3.8.2.3 Sampling Methods and Techniques

Non-probability sampling includes; accessibility sampling, purposive sampling, convenience sampling, quota sampling, snowballing sampling. When a researcher uses accessibility sampling they do so in an attempt to select the sample of the population that is easily accessible (Greenfield 2002). While this approach is common due to its benefits such as cost and administration, it also has drawbacks. The main drawback is the chance of bias. If a researcher wishes to eliminate this bias they may choose purposive sampling instead. Purposive sampling is used when the subjects selected seem to meet the needs of the study (Baker 1994). Purposive sampling was used in this

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research as it was essential for the research that those interviewed and surveyed were members of an IPS organisation; the public sector was the researcher’s defined group. Convenience sampling is when people are selected on the basis of their availability and willingness to respond. An element of this was also used in this study. This was due to the size and geographical locations of IPS organisations. Convenience sampling allowed for the local and regional departments to be utilised in the study as the researcher’s budget would not have allowed travel to other regional IPS organisations. Quota sampling selects respondents from a clearly defined group. Quota sampling was used as the researcher knew the group that was needed to be interviewed and surveyed i.e. the management and staff of the public sector. Snowballing sampling allows the researcher to find a few suitable respondents for the research and then asking them for people’s names who they feel have the same or similar qualities as themselves and would benefit the research if these people were interviewed or surveyed. In other words, a snowballing sample is built ‘from the subjects suggested by previous subjects’ (Baker 1994). Snowballing is often used in studies of elite groups. However, snowballing may limit the diversity of the respondents. Snowballing sampling occurred at some of the earlier interviews, where some managers suggested other managers within the organisation itself or other organisations. It is suggested by Ritchie and Lewis (2003) that when a subject gives you another name; do not interview them but simply ask them for another name who fits the criteria. It is also recommended by Ritchie and Lewis (2003) that snowballing sampling be used in conjunction with another sampling approach, which was adhered to in this study.

3.8.3 Data Analysis Plan

Once interviews were conducted, the audio recording from each interview was transcribed. This involved typing, word for word, everything said at the interview. It also had to include any note taking that was taken into the recording document.

Once everything was transcribed, the researcher could begin to interpret the information received at each interview. It was important that the researcher interpreted the interview in the manner the interviewee intended, which is why it was important to also take notes during the interviews.

The research questions and themes helped form the interview questions and so rather than analysis the interviews by organisation, the interviews were analysed by themes.

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These were the themes that were derived from the literature review. By analysing in it this way, the researcher could compare the manager’s opinions and perceptions on themes with those of their staff, as the survey had been analysed this way also.

While analysing both surveys and interviews, it was important that the researcher always had the research themes and questions on their mind. This guaranteed that the research remained on topic.

3.9 Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data is utilised to obtain information about the world. Quantitative research was used to answer all the research questions as the staff survey was used to gain IPS employees opinions on all research questions.

3.9.1 Data Collection Methods

A quantitative approach was undertaken by allocating surveys to each public sector organisation in which interviews had been completed. Surveys allow for the collection of information on the respondents personal opinions, attitudes, experiences or knowledge (Graziano & Raulin 2000). Graziano and Raulin (2007) also state the major goal of a survey is to learn about the ideas, knowledge, feelings, opinions, attitudes and self-reported behaviour of a defined population. Surveys are the most common technique for collecting quantitative data however, the aim of the researcher’s survey was to facilitate the qualitative interviewing process and to be able to compare perceptions of both interviewed managers and surveyed employees in the IPS.

Graziano and Raulin (2007) give a table of steps involved in survey research. The steps included determining what area of information is to be sought, defining the population to be studied, deciding how the survey is to be administered. They also suggest constructing the first draft of the survey instrument, then edit and refine the draft. It is also important to pre-test the survey with a subsample; refine it further if necessary. They believe when this is done the researcher should develop a sampling frame and draw a representative sample and then administer the final form of the

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survey to the sample. Finally, Graziano and Raulin (2007) comment that the researcher must analyse, interpret and communicate the results.

Care had to be taken when developing the survey as the correct style of questioning had to be used in order to achieve its maximum potential. Surveys allowed for a wider response to be received and were far less time consuming than interviewing each possible respondent(Graziano & Raulin 2000).

Administration of the survey involved layout, decisions on length of survey, types of questions to be asked, implementing the survey, observing the quality of answers, response rates and ethics issues. Poor administration of a survey can lead to a low rate of responses and generally poor data. The style of questions used also had a big impact on the information given by the respondents. Open ended questions can be discouraging for some respondents. However, at the same time they can provide information the researcher would not have received through closed questions and so limited open ended questions were used (Graziano & Raulin 2000).

The questions asked had to be carefully thought about in order to avoid confusion and to ensure there were no double meanings. Careful thought also had to be given to ensure the researcher got the information they require for their research questions. Questions were kept as short as possible. Caution was taken to avoid bias in the wording of the questions. The survey was designed with the research questions in mind and with the easiest questions at the start. This was highly recommended to engage and get the respondents attention (Graziano & Raulin 2000).

A mixed method survey includes both open ended and closed questions. They can be asked in a variety of methods, e.g. asking an open ended question, followed by numerous close-ended questions. The survey was tested on a sample population before issuing it to the selected population. This ensured any mistakes or discrepancies were edited before distributing to the selected audience.

400 surveys were issued to individuals within the companies where management had been interviewed. This allowed for easy access to the necessary parties required to answer the research questions.

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Online surveys were not utilised due to the lack of budget. Although free surveys are available online they limit the number of questions you can have which would not have suited this research. If management had not been willing to allocate the surveys to staff, other staff representatives or union leaders would have been approached. Survey questions included both open and closed questions, and also contained Likert scale questions and multiple choice questions. The survey questions were designed in order to be able to clearly identify staffs attitudes and perceptions toward innovation and the themes that stem from innovative behaviour. The questions were also designed in such a way that comparisons could be drawn between the staff survey and management interview responses.This led to the survey being heavily qualitative. These surveys were anonymous so as to facilitate more accurate responses. Surveys allowed information to be gathered without ever having to meet the respondents. Denscombe (1998) identified that response rates for a survey, depending on the nature of the research and length are usually about 20%. Denscombe (1998) also raised the issue that sending out surveys with no warning to potential respondents will result in a low response rate. For this reason, senior management were contacted in an attempt to notify potential respondents in the organisation before sending out the surveys. This enabled the researcher to yield a response rate of 39.75%. Some organisations yielded a higher response rate but the average response rate is much higher than Denscombe’s suggested average. The responses to the survey allowed for statistical data to be received and analysed which in turn allowed for facts on the research question to be gathered.

Focus groups may possibly have opened up wider issues on the research topic and have allowed participants to express their opinion freely without a time scale. However, focus groups are very difficult to master, are very timely and difficult to run. The researcher was not confident that staff would be as open and reliant when being publically asked about their perceptions to management and other opinions on their organisation as they could be when answering the survey. Staff may have felt obliged to answer certain questions with what they feel they are expected to say. Also, it could have been possible that some staff members would agree with the general consensus rather than voicing their own opinion for fear of being ridiculed by their peers. Another justification for not having chosen focus groups was that it would have been

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very difficult to get managers to give staff permission to take time off from their duties to participate.

3.9.2 Quantitative Sampling Plan 3.9.2.1 Sampling Population

The population for the researcher’s quantitative research were employees of the IPS.

Table 3.2 No. Of respondents from each organisation

Organisation No. of respondents

Local Authority 8

PRAI 29

Dept of Agriculture 6

Enterprise Ireland 4

Dept of Social Protection 29

HSE 8

Primary Education Sector 5 Second Level Education sector 23 Third Level Education sector 25

An Garda Síochána 7

Prison Service 15

3.9.2.2 Sampling Frame

As previously reported in 3.8.2.2 a good sampling frame would be complete, accurate, up-to-date, reliable, and convenient to use’. (Daniel 2012, p. 13)

The availability of an appropriate sampling frame is critical in making sampling