Data for this research was collected through semi-structured interviews, observations, and documentary analysis. The duration of field work was six weeks in Hyderabad and five weeks each in Kampala and Spanish Town. All collected data was stored in labelled folders in a laptop using Windows Vista as part of the case study database.
Systematic labelling of files and folders was used to facilitate ease of retrieval. To avoid the risk of losing data, multiple copies of all collected data were made and stored in external storage devices. Microsoft Word was used to type and store all field notes including descriptions of observations and conversations. Details on the use of these qualitative data collection techniques are provided below.
4.5.1 Semi-Structured Interviews
The interview process was guided by the interview guide (Appendix A). For example, the interviews followed Robson’s (2001) recommended order, that is, introduction, warm-up, main body, cool-off and closure. During introductions, the interviewees were informed of the interview’s purpose and consent was sought for recording the conversations. Other techniques described in the guide, such as probing, were also followed during the interviews.
Pre-prepared questions constructed around main themes identified through literature review and pilot interviews were used in the interviews (Appendix B). The interviews were focused, open-ended and conversational in manner. The author found that maintaining a balance between focus and open-endedness was important in the flow and quality of data.
Different non-probability sampling strategies were used to make decisions on whom to interview and how to find the interviewees. For example, purposive sampling was used for promoters and implementers while haphazard sampling was used for customers. The network structure of IWA was used to set up interviews with some of the promoters and implementers.
In order to get robust data, high, middle and low ranking members of each unit of analysis were interviewed. For example, among the utilities information was sought from director level managers, branch managers and junior staff. Among the customers, individuals from different social-classes, inferred from neighbourhoods, were interviewed. All interviews were conducted in English.
As advised by Wengraf (2001), the author took consideration of the social settings, that is, factors such as local physical and social arrangement, type of day, time of day and social constraints and interruptions. These considerations were of particular importance when dealing with people who had different cultural values.
Interviews held with customers and implementers were held in private spaces. While there were some interruptions, the interruptions themselves were revealing in some ways. The private surroundings also offered many clues. Interviews held with promoters were held in neutral spaces. These spaces were mostly hotels in which workshops or meetings were being held.
During the interviews a digital voice recorder was used to record the interviews and interview notes were also taken. Labelling of the recordings with date, time, place and informant was an important first step. Separate file for each interview was created and enough data on the interviewee was saved to enable re-contact.
While all interviews with implementers and promoters were recorded, there were three instances where customers would not give consent for recording their interviews and as such their responses were written down2. Immediately after each interview the author took some time to reflect and make notes recording thoughts and observations. This
“‘instant post-interview debriefing’” is important because during the interview, taking of excessive notes might lead to breaking contact and rapport with the informants (Wengraf, 2001).
Digitally recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim by the author using Microsoft Word. An alphanumeric code is used to identify each interview. The first letter refers to the case locale; Hyderabad (H), Kampala (K) and Spanish Town (S). The second and third letters indicate the type of the interview: CI, II, and PI indicate customer interview, implementer interview, and promoter interview respectively. The number shows the interview number. For example, the code HCI15 means Hyderabad customer interview number 15.
One of the lessons learnt regarding interviews is that as much as you put an effort in shaping the interview process, the moods and the personality of the interviewee also have an equal or heavier weighting on the matter.
4.5.2 Observations
Observations made in the field make an important contribution to the data on which this research is built. Observations began upon setting foot in each field location and ended after leaving. The author used both covert and overt observation techniques. In some instances the author made conversations and asked questions about the observations.
These observations and conversations were recorded in the field notebook.
A digital camera was also used to take pictures and video clips of some observations. In instances where it was not possible to take pictures the author would record the observation in his field notebook. For example, in Jamaica the author was told by
2 A customer in Spanish Town explained that she did not want her voice to be recorded because it could be used to bewitch her
informant that it was dangerous to take pictures in some areas of Spanish Town because there were many drug dealers who would think they were being spied on
I found pictures and video clips to be very effective in illustrating the observed activity particularly during presentations.
4.5.3 Documentary Analysis
A variety of documents were analysed to source data. Of vital importance were primary documents directly linked to the subject of study, examples include: WSP project reports, internal utility reports and documents, and other stakeholder reports such as regulatory reports.
Data was also obtained from consultations with key stakeholders. Based on a list created from preliminary literature review, key people who have been involved in the implementation of WSPs were consulted. Through such consultation unpublished items and personal insights into different WSP projects were received.
Publicly available information such as reports from development organizations and media reports were also used. I bought two to three different local newspapers every day in order to be up to date with local developments and issues of interest to the research.