Data Collection Techniques in Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is flexible in that different data collection techniques can be used to best obtain the information needed. Goulding (2002, pp. 56-66) explains that data collection has a wide range including uses of secondary data, life histories, interviews, observational data and memos.

4.4.2.1 In-depth Interviews

Interviews are one of the most useful data collection methods in grounded theory and in qualitative research. Goulding (2002, p. 59) writes, “…in social research the language of conversation, including that of the interview remains one of the most important tools of social analysis, a means whereby insight is gained into everyday life, as well as the social and cultural dimensions of our and other societies”. Due to this reason the primary method used to obtain data was through

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in-depth interviews which were then analysed using the grounded theory approach. Through in-depth interviews the phenomenon of guanxi could be understood from the respondents’ perspectives and provided thick details of the topic being

analysed. It was the primary method of data collection used during this research. The use of in-depth interviews enabled the characteristics of guanxi to be

identified, provided practical examples, showed how widespread each characteristic was and their importance over time.

According to Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2006, p. 125) the three types of interviews that can be used in the data collection process are structured, semi-structured and open-ended. The structured interview is a quantitative approach that provides little room for exploration. In order to obtain depth of response while still controlling the direction of the interview, semi-structured in-depth interviews were used. Fontana and Frey (2003, pp. 75, 76) write that the purpose of open-ended interviews is to understand the respondents in the way they describe themselves rather than to explain them. Open-ended interviews allowed Chinese respondents to explain the phenomenon of guanxi in the business environment from their perspective rather than from preconceived ideas.

In order to gain depth of information while still adhering to the topic, either a checklist or topic questions can be used in in-depth interviews (Veal, 2005, pp. 128-130). With a checklist it is not necessary to follow set questions so long as the needed information is obtained during the conversation. Topic questions on the other hand are closer to a structured questionnaire in that set questions are asked in each interview although they are still designed to ensure depth in the

respondents’ answers. In order to cover all the subjects that needed to be

understood to answer the research questions in detail, topic questions rather than a checklist were used. From the literature currently reviewed, an example of the interview guide can be found in Appendix H for art dealers and Appendix I for artists. It covers information that needed to be obtained from respondents about their opinions on the characteristics of guanxi, examples of those characteristics, the importance of those characteristics for building business relationship and their importance over time.

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Care was taken to maintain accuracy throughout the interview process. Veal (2005, pp. 130-131) writes that neutral wording must be used to ensure the respondents’ responses are not influenced by the interviewer, with the exception of topic sentences when a new subject is to be addressed. There was also space on the interview guide for note taking so any ideas or questions by the interviewer were noted without interrupting the respondents’ answers. Care was also taken to ensure participants had enough time to think. In each case respondents gave their permission for the interviews to be recorded. They were then transcribed verbatim, translated when in Chinese and then analysed using Atlas.ti software, version 6.1. Most interviews were conducted in Chinese except when participants showed a preference to speak in English and had the ability to do so. There were also two foreign artists who were interviewed in English.

Dealing with Difficulties when Interviewing

One of the major difficulties encountered when doing interviews is the establishment of trust (Goulding, 2002, p. 60). Trust goes hand in hand with confidentiality and if participants feel that the information may be used against them then it may be difficult to illicit honest responses. In this study the topic of guanxi was considered sensitive and a number of participants were not willing to divulge certain information particularly when it involved the government. To deal with this the researcher firstly explained the confidential nature of the data

collection and in some cases met with participants a number of times beforehand prior to interviewing.

Fontana and Frey (1994) also explain that rapport needs to be built so that the participants trust the researcher and are forthcoming in their responses. However, some people will never fully trust the interviewer which is why it is necessary to reach theoretical saturation in order to ensure honest data. During the interview process the building of rapport posed a number of problems. Firstly, when rapport was developed well the participants would often go off topic when talking in a very relaxed manner. They had to be continually redirected. When rapport had not been established the participants were unwilling to talk freely. As a result a

careful balance needed to be established to ensure rich data that was relevant to the study.

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4.4.2.2 Observations

The benefit of observations is that they are usually unobtrusive reducing the interference of the researcher and minimising changes in behaviour (Adler & Adler, 1994). However, there are some negative aspects to using observations in grounded theory. They may be evidence of chance happenings and also do not explain why particular behaviour takes place. For these reasons observations were used as a supplement to the interviews that had already been conducted. In many instances after interviews had been completed the participants invited the

researcher out for a meal. During these situations many interviewees would invite their friends to eat with them. In these instances the researcher was able to observe behaviour that had been discussed in the interviews and also listen to

conversations in a relaxed environment. When this occurred all observations were written down after returning home. In some cases photographs were also taken. These notes and photographs were also assigned as documents in the Atlas.ti software.