Data generation methods

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Scholars categorise research into different fields for different purposes (Creswell, 2014; Kumar, 2012). The purpose of data generation in qualitative research is to provide evidence for the experience it is investigating (Polkinghorne, 2005). Sandelowski (2000) contends that it is directed at the who, what and the where of experiences. Yin (2003; 2012) identified six sources of evidence for case studies, namely, documents, archival records, interviews, direct observation, participant observation and physical artefacts. In the context of this study, I used only three data generation methods, a) semi-structured interviews conducted with school principals, and b) observation of the principals in their contexts of the schools, c) document reviews. A detailed discussion of each follows next.

4.8.1 Semi- structured interviews

There is general agreement amongst scholars that semi-structured interviews are the primary source of qualitative research, including case study methodologies (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Yin, 2009). Due to the limited nature of this study, I did not delve into laborious details clarifying different kinds of interviews, their merits and demerits. Nonetheless, I can point out that interviews take various forms as outlined in a plethora of literature (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011; Gray, 2004; Moen, 2006; Patton, 2002). In this study, I used semi-structured interviews due to their benefits for studies such as this one. Semi- structured interviews were administered to seven secondary school principals who have managed to transform the performance of their schools despite various deprivations within their environments. I used semi-structured interviews because they are renowned for affording the interviewees a platform to share their leadership experiences regarding their roles in transforming underperforming schools to performing schools in deprived contexts. This type of interviews is the most common type of interviews used in qualitative research (Holloway & Wheeler, 2010). The key feature of this type of interviews is that, they are interactive and they use a range of probes and techniques to achieve depth in soliciting answers (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011; Gray, 2004; Moen, 2006). The interviews are also conducted in a face-to-face format with the interviewees. Furthermore, in semi-structured interviews, the researcher is free to vary the order of wording of the questions depending on the direction of the interview and to ask additional questions (Corbetta, 2003). When using this type of interviews, the researcher can explore new paths that emerge during the interview process that may not have been considered initially (Gray, 2004; Patton, 2002).

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Before I move on to discuss the second method that I used to generate data, I think that it is important that I provide a context within which I generated data and how the process unfolded. Before I went to do what Wolcott (1995) calls fieldwork, I informed the selected principals in writing about the research project and requested them to participate in the research project. I also gave them an estimated length of the interview process. I had already developed the interview guide with a list of issues to be covered during our conversation. We agreed about the most suitable time and place to conduct our conversation (semi-structured interviews). I interviewed all participants in their school premises in order to allow for freedom of expression and reflection of the environment within which they operate. I gave them the interview guide beforehand so that they could prepare themselves and accommodate the interview process in their schedule. Moen (2006) contends that there is a need for a collaborative relationship between the researcher and the participants, which can be nurtured through adequate time spent with participants in a suitable space to develop a caring situation in which both the researcher and the participants feel comfortable.

I did not present the questions to one participants in the same sequence as I had conducted the interviews with the other participant. This was due to the engagement in trying to get the depth of the issues (Creswell, 2014; Devos, 2002). I allowed each participant to respond freely without any interference. Furthermore, I probed on areas where there was a need to elicit more information. During the interview process, I ensured that I employed user-friendly language to elicit information from these principals. For example, I posed open-ended questions. During the interview process, I scribbled some notes whilst the digital voice recorder was recording our conversation. I used the digital voice recorder to maintain an accurate record of the dialogue. I treated participants with respect and as equal partners. I did not project myself as an official of the Department of Education as I believe that issues of power might negatively affect our relationship and the flow of information. We also shared our contact details so that we could continue our conversation some other time in the future. In other words, I did not like the idea that our conversations ended at the end of our formal interviews. Adopting such a stance assisted me in terms of soliciting further data on some of the aspects that were deemed to have not been covered and for clarifications where required. Secondly, during these follow up visits I was able to probe further whilst going through the data on school analysis and other supporting documents to verify transcript content.

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The questions required the participants to provide factual responses regarding their work as principals in turning the school academic performance, the approaches used, the areas covered by such a venture and the lessons learnt in the process to mention a few. A detailed presentation is provided in Chapter Five and Chapter Six. Participants were requested to explain their unique leadership experiences as principals working with teachers and other stakeholders in improving academic performance at their various schools. They were requested to describe their application of the turnaround strategies in terms of what worked and what they considered to be challenges in the process of implementation. In terms of this approach, the participants were in many ways guided in presenting their unique experiences and requested to present the documents which contained other forms of data and statistics which benefited the study. Within the parameters of the interview process, I was able to generate data that pertains to all the key questions of the study as outlined in the interview schedule and by means of probing.

4.8.2 Participant observations

The process of observation lies at the heart of the participant-observer and ethnographic or qualitative research (Yanov, 2006). It affords the researcher the opportunity to study what occurs in real life, as opposed to what happens in highly contrived settings (Mcmillan & Schumacher, 2010). Gillhan (2000) posits that it is the most direct technique of obtaining data and not just what the person has written or said but what they have enacted. Observations come in various forms such as participant observation and direct observation. Participant observation is a mode of observation in which the researcher is not merely a passive observer but actively assumes a variety of roles within a fieldwork situation and participates in the actions being studied (BERG, 2001). Whilst it provides unusual opportunities to produce data, its major challenge is that there is room for potential biases to be produced as the participant-observer is likely to follow a commonly known phenomenon and become the supporter of the group or organisation being studied (Yin, 2014). Direct observation implies that the researcher watches the events directly.

In this research, direct observation method was adopted and was applied in the quest to gain understanding and insight about the seven principals’ lived experiences in turning around underperforming schools in deprived contexts. Patton (2002) identifies several advantages of using direct observation method, namely, that it enables the observer to understand and capture

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the setting within which people interact; see and discover things that people in the location have not paid attention to. Lastly, the researcher may pick up things that he or she might not have thought about in advance. In this regard, I was able to capture the location of the schools in terms of physical terrain, the distances to such schools from the district, the size of the school, the physical features of the school and the place where the principals worked. All of the above- mentioned factors were taken into consideration, as these schools were purposively selected. For instance, some of the criteria for selection were that schools had to be located in the rural as well as informal settlement areas. This enabled me to develop deeper insights about issues relating to leadership ability and resilience to turn around academic performance despite the prevalent deprivations.

4.8.3 Documents reviews

Documents review is a non- reactive technique where the information given in a document is not subject to a possible distortion as a result of the interaction between the researcher and the participant (Corbetta, 2003). It is particularly useful where the history of events or experiences has relevance in the study (Ritchie & Lewis, 2003). For case study research, the most important use of documents is to corroborate and augment evidence from other sources (Yin, 2014). For this research, information was sought from schools to corroborate information from semi- structured interviews. This information included amongst others the previous three years academic performance in (NSC), appraisal information and school improvement plans and any other documents to supplement the information gathered.

In conducting this document review, prior approval was sought from the principals in the form of informed consent letters and also during the physical visits to such schools to conduct the interviews. With such prior permission, I was able to time the request of such information in a way that would not cause the principals to view it negatively as some kind of inspection or investigation. The reviewed documents assisted me to dig further in gathering the data and getting an understanding in terms of where these schools come from in terms of academic performance. This information is displayed in some sections of Chapter Five and Chapter Six respectively in the form of tables which draw comparisons between these seven schools. Such information gives a clear picture of the nature of the differences between of these multiple case study sites in terms of academic performance, enrolment size, quintiles, and staff sizes to

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mention a few. With such information and comparisons presented it takes the reader to picture such schools and make some informed assumptions and conclusions from a professional perspective.