Data Interoperability (standards and specifications)

Several efforts from different industries are making progress towards solutions for interoperability to enable information exchange between heterogeneous systems. buildingSMART (2010) developed the Industry Foundation Class (IFC) model (a data schema) enabling data interoperability by the sharing of information between project team members and across the software applications that they commonly use for design, construction, procurement, maintenance and operations (building lifecycle) through a common data schema. This also enables the sharing of 3D design models. buildingSMART (2010) and Pouchard and Cutting-Decelle (2007) list the processes supported by the current version (IFC2x Edition 3) and the target applications to exchange and share information but no mention was made specifically to client requirements information management and its target application. COBie (Construction Operations Building Information Exchange) was also developed as a standard data specification for structured information exchange (Smith and Tardif, 2009; East, 2010). The COBie approach and concept is to enter the data and information as it is created during the processes of design, construction, and commissioning, which will essentially support the operations, maintenance, and the management of the facilities by the owner and/or facilities manager (Smith and Tardif, 2009; East, 2010). Another standardisation effort is the agcXML, a buildingSMART project as part of the aecXML Domain framework, aimed at producing a set of eXtensible Markup Language (XML) schemas of structured format for the exchange of information during design and construction process through any number of documents including request for information, change orders amongst others (Smith and Tardif, 2009; buildingSMART, 2011). The project focuses on transactional data, which may or may not be "building information"

(buildingSMART, 2011). Similarly, according to Combe (2006), in response to the lack of information interoperability between applications in the e-business

44 sector resulted in the ebXML standard specifications; a joint development between the OASIS (Organisation for the Advancement of Structured Information Systems) and UN/CEFACT (United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business). The ebXML is an attempt aimed at overcoming restricted applications by operating a horizontal standard that can be developed for use in any vertical industry with main users being SMEs.

This will enable businesses to conduct business-to-business (B2B) transactions with each other through the exchange of XML-based messages and enhance interoperability (Combe, 2006; Information Society Technologies, 2006). All these standards from different industry perspective are geared towards information exchange and interoperability.

Baldwin et al. (1999) recognise the impact of information exchange (i.e., electronic data transfer using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), Electronic mail (E-mail), Document Image Processing, and CAD Data Exchange) had on some organisations business processes resulting in new ways of working. In some industries, these technologies have had a considerable impact upon the business processes and have resulted in new ways of working. Enterprise integration systems (EIS) such as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) are amongst those that are currently utilised in integrated product related information management across organisational functional units (Laudon and Laudon, 2010; Shehab et al., 2004). However, an integrated view of lifecycle information management at different phases of the whole product lifecycle still remains to be addressed (Yang et al., 2007). The construction industry remains fragmented, and depends on the paper-based modes of communication and the use of paper documents which often have errors and omissions, causing unforeseen cost and waste (Eastman et al., 2008).

The efforts to tackle these problems, and the quest for better management of lifecycle building information in an integrated approach, resulted in the emergence of building information modelling (BIM).

45 2.6.2.2 BIM and its Use Across Lifecycle Phases

During the design, construction and operations of a building, a large amount of information is generated by various stakeholders and for multiple purposes.

This is emphasised by Kazi (2005) who states that during the process of constructing the building, large amount of information is produced; valuable experiences and lessons are gained, which if not properly managed (e.g., documented and shared broadly) may be lost. This indicates the need to derive mechanisms for documentation, storage, access and retrieval, and exchange of construction information across the whole lifecycle processes and between the people. Liebowitz (2009) identifies bidirectional knowledge flows: where knowledge flows from bottom up and top down (i.e. learning from each other between senior and junior employees). Similarly, this research also recognises another approach to bidirectional (i.e., backward and forward) information and knowledge flow, which exists between project phases and should be factored as an integrated view when managing information across project lifecycle. The recent emergence of Building Information Modelling (BIM) (Eastman et al., 2008) may provide a vehicle for enabling this approach which encompasses all phases, stakeholders and types of content in construction.

There are many different definitions for a BIM. buildingSMART (2010) states that a BIM model is a placeholder for the information about a building or a facility, or whatever information you need to collect regarding a site or a building. buildingSMART indicates that this does not have to be only 3D CAD or geometry but could be only textual information; such information could be about client requirements for and project brief. Demian and Fruchter (2005) argue similarly about the use of non-geometrical information (i.e., specifically textual information) to identify relevant building components from previous projects in support of design reuse. Elvin (2007) declares that BIM combines graphical and non-graphical information including specifications, cost and schedule data and project extranets may also be used to support it.

46 The process of generating and managing the building lifecycle information that also creates the model is referred to as building information modelling (Forbes and Ahmed, 2011). BIM does not only improve information exchange in design and construction phases, but has a vast importance to facility management phase (operations and maintenance), redesign and end-of-life too (Elvin, 2007; Eastman et al., 2008). Facility managers often encounter difficulties during operations and maintenance of their facilities. Transfer of design and construction information to facility managers remains a challenge;

often they are faced with the complexity of re-creating information about their building/facilities; as time and again very little information from design and construction phases is habitually not transmitted to later phases in a consistent, methodical manner (Smith and Tardif, 2009). Knowledge management can be boosted through BIM by creating a relational database and interconnecting all information which can support clash detection and information updates when an object in the BIM changes (Elvin, 2007).