Database management systems:

A set of computer programs that organize the information in a database according to a conceptual scheme and provide tools for data input, verification, storage, modification and retrieval.

Database Systems Objectives

To understand the fundamental concepts and advanced technology underlying database systems:

Modern database systems:

Object-relational databases

Multimedia support for databases Database design methodology

Database management systems

Functionalities of DBMSs

Specifying the database structure

Data definition language Manipulation of the database

Query processing and query optimization Integrity enforcement

Integrity constraints Concurrent control

Multiple user environment Crash recovery

Security and authorization Database Approach

Fig12 .:Database Approach Role in an Information System

Fig.13: Role in an Information System 3.5 Georeferencing

To georeference something means to define its existence in physical space. That is, establishing its location in terms of map projections or coordinate systems. The term is used both when establishing the relation between raster or vector images and coordinates, and when determining the spatial location of other geographical features. Examples would include establishing the correct position of an aerial photograph within a map or finding the geographical coordinates of a place name or street address.

This procedure is thus imperative to data modeling in the field of geographic information systems (GIS) and other cartographic methods. When data from different sources need to be combined and then used in a GIS application, it becomes essential to have a common referencing system. This is brought about by using various georeferencing techniques. Most georeferencing tasks are undertaken either because the user wants to produce a new map or because they want to link two or more different datasets together by virtue of the fact that they relate to the same images that were produced at a different point of time. It may be desired either to combine or compare this data with that currently available. The latter can be used to analyze the changes in the features under study over a period of time.

• Different maps may use different projection systems.

Georeferencing tools contain methods to combine and overlay these maps with minimum distortion.

• Using georeferencing methods, data obtained from surveying tools like total stations may be given a point of reference from topographic maps already available.

• It may be required to establish the relationship between social survey results which have been coded with postal codes or street addresses and other geographic areas such as census zones or other areas used in public administration or service planning.

Methods

There are various GIS tools available that can transform image data to some geographic control framework, like ArcMap, PCI Geomatica, or ERDAS Imagine. One can georeference a set of points, lines, polygons, images, or 3D structures. For instance, a GPS device will record latitude and longitude coordinates for a given point of interest, effectively georeferencing this point. A georeference must be a unique identifier. In other words, there must be only one location for which a georeference acts as the reference.

Images may be encoded using special GIS file formats or be accompanied by a world file.

To georeference an image, one first needs to establish control points, input the known geographic coordinates of these control points, choose the coordinate system and other projection parameters and then minimize residuals. Residuals are the difference between the actual coordinates of the control points and the coordinates predicted by the geographic model created using the control points. They provide a method of determining the level of accuracy of the georeferencing process.

In situations where data has been collected and assigned to postal or area codes, it is usually necessary to convert these to geographic coordinates by use of a definitive directory or gazetteer file. Such gazetteers are often produced by census agencies, national mapping organizations or postal service providers. At their simplest, these may simply comprise a list of area codes or place names and another list of corresponding codes, names or coordinate locations. The range and purpose of the codes available is country-specific. An example is the UK's National Statistics Postcode Directory which shows each postcode's membership of census, administrative, electoral and other geographical areas. In this case, the directory also provides dates of creation and deletion, address counts and an Ordnance Survey grid reference for each postcode, allowing it to be mapped directly. Such gazetteer files support many web-based mapping systems which will place a symbol on a map or undertaken analysis such as route-finding, on the basis of postal codes, addresses or place names input by the

3.6 Digitizing

The process of representing an analogue signal or an image by a discrete set of its points is known as Digitizing. This data after conversion is in the binary format, which is directly readable by computer. The data to be converted can be a text, an image, audio or a video. The analogue signals are variable whereas the digital format is the discrete one. These discrete units are called as bits. These bits (8) organized in groups are known as byte. The digital signals are mainly represented in the form of sequence of integers. These integers can be converted back to analogue signal that are approximately similar to the original analogue signals. Digitizing is done by reading an analogue signal ‘A’, and at regular time intervals, representing the value of ‘A’ at that

point by an integer.

Types of Digitizing:

• Manual Digitizing: It is done using digitizing tablet. The operator manually traces all the lines from his hardcopy map and creates identical digital map on the computer. It is very time consuming and level of accuracy is also not very good.

• Heads-up Digitizing: It is similar to manual digitizing in the way that lines have to be drawn manually but directly on the computer screen. So in this level of accuracy increases and time taken decreases.

• Interactive tracing method: It is improvement over Heads-up digitizing in terms of speed and accuracy.

• Automatic Digitizing: It is automated raster to vector conversion using image processing and pattern recognition techniques. In this technique computer traces all the lines, which results in high speed and accuracy along with improved quality of images.

Device used for digitization is known as digitizer. It is an electromagnetic device consisting of a table upon which a map or a document to be scanned is placed. This device enters the spatial coordinates of mapped features from a map or a

document to the computer. It is done with the help of a mouse or a hand held magnetic pen. The most commonly used digitizers are:

• Electrical orthogonal fire wire grid digitizer.

• Electrical wave phase type digitizer.