social processes (Lave and Wenger, 1998). The significance of this theory to learning is that it supports collaborative and interactive learning.
ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL (Input to memory) (Held in memory) (Taken from memory)
Encoding is the process whereby information is thought to be put into the memory; storage relates to the methods assumed to be involved in the retention of information; retrieval relates to the processes of recovery of stored information from memory.
2.2.3 (c) The Various Types of Memory
The brain does not store memories in one unified structure, as might be seen in a computer‟s hard disk drive. Instead, different types of memory are stored in different regions of the brain.
Various types of memory exist and they are described below:
Short-term Memory
Short-term memory (or “primary” or “active memory”) is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time.
The duration of short-term memory (when rehearsal or active maintenance is prevented) is believed to be in the order of seconds. A commonly cited capacity is 7+ or – 2 elements. In contrast, long-term memory indefinitely stores a seemingly unlimited amount of information (Wikipedia Encyclopedia, 2013).
Long-term Memory
Long-term memory (LTM) is memory in which associations among items are stored, as part of the theory of a dual-store memory model. The division of long-term and short-term memory has been supported by several double dissociation experiments. According to the theory, long-term memory differs structurally and functionally from sensory memory, working memory, short-term memory, and intermediate-term memory. While short-term and working memories persist for only about 20 to 30 seconds, information can remain in intermediate-term memory for 5 to 8 hours and in long-term memory indefinitely. This differs from the theory of the single-store retrieved context model that has no differentiation between short-term and long-term memory. Long-term memory is an important aspect of cognition. LTM can be divided into three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Encoding of long-term memory occurs in the cortex at the medial temporal lobe, and damage to the medial temporal lobe is known to cause anterodrade amnesia (Wikipedia Encyclopedia, 2013).
Long-term memory is typically divided up into more major headings:
(i) Explicit Memory/Declarative Memory
This refers to all memories that are consciously available. These are encoded by the hippocampus, entornimal cortex, and perihinal cortex, but consolidated and stored elsewhere.
The precise location of storage is unknown, but the temporal cortex has been proposed as a likely candidate.
(i) Episodic memory
This refers to memory for specific events in time, as well as supporting their formation and retrieval. Some examples of episodic memory would be remembering someone‟s name and what happened at your last interaction with each other. Experiments have indicated that older adults have worse episodic memories than younger adults because episodic memory requires context dependent memory.
(ii) Semantic Memory
This refers to knowledge about factual information, such as information remembered for a test. In contrast with episodic memory older adults and younger adults do not show much of a difference with semantic memory, presumably because semantic memory does not depend on context memory.
Implicit memory
This refers to the use of objects or movements of the body, such as how exactly to use a pencil, drive a car, or ride a bicycle. This type of memory is encoded and it is presumed stored by the cerebellum and striatum.
Procedural Memory
Procedural memory is memory for the performance of particular types of action. Procedural memory guides the processes we perform and most frequently resides below the level of conscious awareness. When needed, procedural memories are automatically retrieved and utilized for the execution of the integrated procedures involved in both cognitive and motor skills, from tying shoes to flying an airplane to reading. Procedural memories are accessed and used without the need for conscious control or attention. Procedural memory is created through “procedural learning” or, repeating a complex activity over and over again until all of
the relevant neural systems work together to automatically produce the activity. Implicit procedural learning is essential to the development of any motor skill or cognitive activity.
Working Memory
Working memory is the system that actively holds multiple pieces of transitory information in the mind, where they can be manipulated. This involves execution of verbal and non-verbal tasks- such as reasoning and comprehension- and makes them available for further information-processing. Working memory is generally used synonymously with short-term memory, depending on how these two forms of memory are defined. Working memory includes subsystems that store and manipulate visual images or verbal information, as well as a central executive that coordinates the subsystems. It includes visual representations of the possible moves, and awareness of the flow of information into and out of memory, all stored for a limited amount of time. Working memory tasks require monitoring (i.e., manipulation of information or behaviours) as part of completing goal-directed actions in the setting of interfering processes and distractions. Theories exist both regarding the theoretical structure of working memory and the role of specific parts of the brain involved in working memory.
Research identifies the frontal cortex, parietal cortex, anterior cingulated, and parts of the basal ganglia as crucial. The neural basis of working memory has been derived from lesion experiments in animals and functional imaging upon humans (Wikipedia Encyclopedia, 2013). There is now extensive evidence, as mentioned earlier, that working memory is linked to key learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. A longitudinal study confirmed that a child‟s working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.