DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS IN THE STUDY

Bishop (1985:1) defines curriculum as “a sum total of all experiences a pupil undergoes” further explaining that “a curriculum is much wider than a syllabus which only is only part of the curriculum”. Doll (1996, cited in Farrell, 2008:11), defines the curriculum as the formal and informal content and process by which learners gain knowledge and understanding, develop skills, and alter attitudes, appreciations and values under the auspices of that school. Curriculum is more than simply a course of study. Taneja (2012:292) notes:

instead of including academic subjects only, it includes the totality of experiences that a pupil receives through the manifold activities that go on in the school, in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop, playgrounds and in the numerous informal contacts between teachers and pupils. In this sense, the whole life of the school becomes the curriculum which can touch the life of the learners at all points and help in the evolution of a balanced personality.

It is therefore an “instructional and educative programme by following which the pupils achieve their goals, ideals and aspirations in life” (Taneja, 2012:292). A school’s aims are expressed through the curriculum. What would a school without a curriculum be like? This description applies to a school curriculum as opposed to national education curriculum that all schools in a country should follow. A school curriculum is a decentralised expression of the national curriculum. Though there are many definitions of curriculum, the curriculum addressed in this study is the intended or taught curriculum.

1.12.2 Curriculum Change

UNESCO-IBE (2013:45) explain the term change “as a generic term that includes a host of concepts such as ‘innovation, development, and adoption, whether planned, unplanned, unintended, spontaneous or accidental’”. But planned curriculum change may mean

innovation at classroom or whole school level as well as the reform and reconstruction of a whole or parts of the education system of a country. Curriculum change is a process. Marsh (2009) explains curriculum change as a series of phases such as needs assessment, initiation or adoption, implementation or initial use and institutionalisation. The teacher’s involvement at each of the stages is important for a successful curriculum change. There are many factors that can drive change. UNESCO (2013:49) observes that “change can arise from the realisation that what has been taught in the past will not prepare young people for successful lives in future and that the quality and relevance of curriculum must be improved”. Change can be influenced by the need to improve the economy; preserve and appreciate local culture and identity; reduce inequalities; promote humanitarian values; enhance global competitiveness and integration; and embrace new technologies.

There are many reasons for change but if curriculum change is driven by the need to improve the quality of education, then such change should be embraced. If the change even goes further to embrace an inclusive curriculum, such a change deserves everyone’s support. Each of the factors of change may have its own source. Politicians, the industry and its demands, religious groups, civil society organisations, professionals may suggest or initiate change. Gruba (2004) noted that many changes are proposed because they are an indisputably “good thing”. One would find it hard to argue against the introduction of laboratory classes into a subject based on lectures and tutorials. In the same way, an inclusive curriculum which is developed in consultation with all teachers, particularly SE teachers, would be easy to implement because they would understand it better. Byers and Rose (2004) and UNESCO (2013) further support school autonomy or school-based curriculum respectively in curriculum development. The philosophy behind this is that schools have different characteristics. Drawing a curriculum suitable to the school but within the confines of the general education aims/guidelines would be helpful to SE especially when it comes to adapting the curriculum. This depends on how much schools are empowered to do so and whether legislation supports such autonomy of schools to operate in such a manner at curriculum level. In this study, the curriculum change being addressed is the reform and reconstruction of the whole curriculum that gave birth to the 2013 curriculum framework. In Zambia, the concept of school-based curriculum is not yet developed although there is reference to what is called a localised curriculum.

1.12.3 Special Education

According to Singh (2012:1), SE “refers to specifically designed instruction which meets the unique needs of exceptional children. It involves special instructional materials, teaching techniques, content, equipment and facilities”. Mangal (2012:29) defines SE as a term that “refers to a distinctive type of education, specifically and specially designed for meeting the needs of exceptional or special children”. The National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (1999:23) defines SE as “any educational provision which is designed to cater for pupils with SEN and is additional to or different from the provision which is generally made in ordinary classes for pupils of the same age”. In this type of education, learners who because of physical, emotional, cognitive limitations cannot benefit from the curriculum as provided in schools are provided with modified and adapted teaching to meet their learning needs. Such learners include but are not limited to learners with intellectual challenges; learners with physical impairments that impede learning to some degree; those with sensory impairments such as hearing and vision who cannot benefit from audio- or visually-presented learning materials; learners whose behaviour is against the socially accepted norms that the classroom may not condone; and those with communication difficulties and learning disabilities among others. SE desires to ensure that all learners regardless of their abilities have access to the general curriculum through curriculum modifications and adaptations in order for them to compete and benefit from opportunities society provides. Over the years, there have been many forms of providing SE to LSENs. These forms include traditional special schools, special units, hospital units, rehabilitation centres and inclusive schools. In this study, SE is a type of education provided to learners who cannot benefit or minimally benefit from the general curriculum and teaching methods due to limitations in their physical, emotional, mental or psychological wellbeing. It is such learners that may need an adapted curriculum, a modified curriculum or a number of accommodations in order to learn effectively.

1.12.4 Learners with SEN

The area of SE has attracted attention especially in the use of terminologies. There are several terms that have before been used to mean the concept ‘LSENs’. Terms such as handicapped (MoE 1977); exceptional children (Kirk, Gallagher, Coleman & Anastasiow 2009, Mangal 2013); or learning disabled (Mangal 2013); have been used to refer to people with disabilities. Singh (2012) prefers to use the concept “Children with SEN”. While there has

been a change from the term ‘handicapped’ to ‘disabled’, the term mostly used in main documents to refer to such learners is ‘children with SE needs’ (MoE 1996; MoE 2013a). It has been observed that the use of terms such as handicapped, disabled and exceptional was diagnostic in approach and did not focus on correcting the problem but identifying it. The use of the concept “LSENs” focuses on the needs of people with disabilities that need to be met in order for them to participate in society on an equal basis with others without disabilities. The term disability was more labelling than helping. In this study, LSENs are learners who are identified to have hearing, visual, physical, intellectual impairments that affect their ability to learn. It also covers learners that are gifted or talented, learners with specific learning disabilities, communication problems, autism, and behavioural disorders. These are learners with disabilities of any degree as long as they are eligible for SE services.

1.12.5 Special Education Needs (SEN)

This concept refers to the specified needs that enable persons with disabilities to access services such as education. According to MESVTEE (2013: vii), SEN “refers to the education services and strategies provided to learners with different abilities and challenges”. Thus, this study will use the above definitions to refer to SE needs and includes any form of tangible or intangible help (service) provided to learners in order for them to access learning; for example, learners with mobility problems provided with a wheelchair or aided to move around their learning environment. Modified strategies in teaching that enable learners with disabilities be able to learn or compensate their loss become SE needs. The individualised education programme, screening services, assessment for disabilities, additional learning material and many other services add to the list of SE needs.

1.12.6 Special School

Singh (2012:6) defines a special school as including “both residential institutions and day schools. In the residential school, a child is separated from the family and community and is placed institutionally with other children who have similar problems requiring specific services from trained staff”. In this study, a special school can be a boarding or day school providing special services to learners with disabilities only. The school has trained staff specialised in various subject areas. Current education philosophy is shifting toward inclusive schooling rather than separate special schools. The special school has been found to have a wider range of disadvantages though the intention in establishing them may have been good. In a special school, learners are denied the wider view of the world and are confined

according to the features they possess. This seems to be discriminatory. Learners with disabilities in special schools are denied participation in the wider community, and they are denied interaction and a share of emotional satisfaction they would derive from the wider community of learners and peers without disabilities. The concept of a special school must be redefined not to mean segregation; otherwise, the effects on the child are detrimental to their general development. The redefinition of a special school is the inclusive school.

1.12.7 Inclusive School

This is a learning institution where LSENs learn together in the same classroom sharing all sorts of learning facilities available. Such learning facilities include teaching methods, learning aids, and adaptive equipment among other learning requirements. The concept of inclusive school should not be narrowed to mean placement of the disabled learners in the mainstream classroom. Even learners without disabilities can join special schools and change the concept of a special school into an inclusive one. The concept implies that a full package of pedagogical skills, practices and resources should be available to make placement a reality. In an inclusive schooling arrangement, marginalisation either by other learners or teachers or even in terms of scarcity of specialised resources should not exist. Participation in learning and extra-curricular activities should not be selective and learning and teaching resources should be available to meet their needs.