Definitions

An overview of the literature reveals some definitions of subjective object-based

authenticity (Table 10). Existing definitions reflecting this type have identified keywords such as genuine (Castéran & Roederer, 2013; Napoli, Dickinson, Beverland, & Farrelly, 2014; Waitt, 2000), accurate, real, true (Castéran & Roederer, 2013; Waitt, 2000), actual (Waitt, 2000), not a copy or an imitation (Grayson & Martinec, 2004), and a sense of past (Breathnach, 2006); upon operationalization, these keywords are often reiterated for respondents’ better understanding as original or traditional (Yi et al., 2016), presenting local history (Lu et al., 2015), or exuding a

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sense of tradition (Napoli et al., 2014). These keywords address an object’s perceived association with its origin or past from the tourists’ perspective, which reflects that the most distinctive difference between the constructivist (i.e. subjective object-based authenticity) and objectivist (i.e. objective object-based authenticity) approach is that the former is the perception of laymen, while the latter is that of experts.

Table 10

Definitions of Subjective Object-based Authenticity Author Definition

Waitt (2000) “Conventionally, its definitions invoked such terms as accurate, genuine, real, true, or actual…The conventional definition of authenticity was employed in this study in order to measure tourists’ level of perceived authenticity of The Rocks” (p. 846)

Grayson &

Martinec (2004)

“The word ‘authentic’ is sometimes used to describe something that is thought not to be a copy or an imitation. In this sense, an object is authentic when it is believed to be ‘the original’ or ‘the real thing’… Alternatively, the word ‘authentic’ is sometimes used to describe something whose physical manifestation resembles something that is indexically authentic” (p. 297) Breathnach

(2006)

“Exhibitionary authenticities… [involves] the consumption of an auratic authenticity, based on the historical object… [which provides] more immediate, informal and direct access to the past” (p. 115)

Casteran &

Roederer (2013)

“Authenticity can be defined as a concept that encapsulates what is genuine, real, and/or true” (p. 153)

Napoli et al.

(2014)

“In this study brand authenticity is defined as a subjective evaluation of genuineness ascribed to a brand by consumers” (p. 1091)

Subjective object-based authenticity has been labeled and operationalized differently in the reviewed literature (Table 11). There is no widely accepted scale for this type of authenticity;

rather, every study produces a set of scale specifically for their research contexts. One line of operationalization focuses on the history preservation of the built heritage environment, which was originated from MacCannell (1973), who conceptualizes staged authenticity with the

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preparedness of the setting for spectator observation. Conron (2006) echoes this approach and contends that Western trekkers visiting aboriginal villages in Thailand seek evidence of the backwardness and the lack of development of the area to validate the authenticity as they expected. This practice of measuring only the authenticity of the built environment has been adopted in several studies. For example, Waitt (2000) measures perceived historical authenticity of a redeveloped maritime heritage site with a 13-item scale (5-point semantic differential) focusing on different aspects of the physical setting (i.e. setting, activities and demonstrations, buildings). Similarly, Grayson and Martinec (2004) measure authenticity of two late celebrity houses with an 18-item scale (5-point Likert) indicating indexical (i.e. the real thing) and iconic authenticity (i.e. the simulated thing) respectively.

46 Table 11

Operationalization of Subjective Object-based Authenticity

Author(s) Terminology Dimension(s) Source of scale Number of

items & type of scale

Waitt (2000) Perceived historical authenticity

- Setting

- Activities and demonstrations - Buildings

- traditional characteristics and certification

- difficult to obtain - locally produced - low cost

Self-developed 25 items 5-point Likert

Grayson &

Martinec (2004)

Indexical authenticity - Actual indexicality with inhabitant - Hypothetical indexicality with inhabitant - Actual indexicality with inhabitant’s era

Self-developed 18, 5-point Likert Grayson &

Martinec (2004)

Iconic authenticity - Iconicity with fiction - Iconicity with old things - Iconicity with history Beverland

(2006)

Authenticity - Heritage and pedigree - Stylistic consistency - Quality commitments - Relationship to place - Method of production

- Downplaying commercial motives

NA NA

Heritage authenticity - Natural authenticity - Original authenticity

- Perceived foodservice authenticity - Servicescape

- Event hygiene

Self-developed 7 item 7-point Likert Casteran &

Roederer (2013)

Authenticity - The origin of the offerings - Respect for tradition

- What the product has to do with

Brand authenticity - Quality commitment - Heritage

- Country of production - Knowledge-based know-how - Brand name

NA NA

Lu et al.

(2015)

Authenticity Authenticity (unidimension) Self-developed 4, 5-point Likert

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Another line of operationalization uses a condensed version of built environment, specifically focusing on the toured objects. This tradition began with Beverland (2006), who identifies wine tourists’ perception of wine authenticity to be the product of six dimensions: 1) heritage and pedigree, 2) stylistic consistency, 3) quality commitments, 4) relationship to place, 5) method of production, and 6) downplaying commercial motives. Casteran and Roederer (2013) use a similar approach by summarizing dimensions of Christmas merchandise authenticity to be 1) locally produced, 2) created with long-standing craftsmanship, and 3) embodying symbols of Christmas. Liu et al. (2015) adopt the same approach and show that cellphone consumers’ authenticity perceptions hinge on the match between a product and its 1) country of production, 2) knowledge-based know-how, and 3) brand name. This practice was adopted by Revilla and Dodd (2003) who use a 25-item scale (5-point Likert) to reflect consumers’ authenticity perceptions of Talavera pottery that incorporates dimensions of 1) appearance/ utility, 2) traditional characteristics and certification, 3) difficult to obtain, 4) locally produced, and 5) low cost. Likewise, Robinson and Clifford (2012) measure foodservice

authenticity with a 7-item scale (7-point Likert) that reflects perceived foodservice authenticity, servicescape, and event hygiene. Similarly, Lu et al. (2015) measure authenticity on a 4-item scale (5-point Likert) that incorporates built structures, traditional customs, and the historic atmosphere of the destination.

An additional line of operationalization goes beyond the previous lines by incorporating both the built (i.e. buildings) and non-built (i.e. ambience, natural scenery, and human services) environment. This tradition begins with Andriotis (2011), who depicts heritage authenticity of a religious heritage site as the co-product of historic buildings, landscape, religious rituals, and church services. Similarly, Buchmann et al. (2010) argue that film tourists visiting New Zealand

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to relive the movie Lord of the Ring perceive authenticity through the well-preserved natural landscape that corresponds to the portrayal in the movie. This practice of measuring the authenticity of both built and non-built environment was also adopted by several studies. For example, Yi et al. (2016) develop a 12-item scale measuring perceived authenticity (7-point Likert) with architectural heritage, traditional customs, and craftsmanship that reflect the cultural traditions of the destination. Yi et al. (2018) modify the previous scale into a 7-item scale

measuring perceived authenticity (7-point Likert) with architectural heritage and folk culture.

Subjective object-based authenticity has been referred to in a number of terms:

authenticity, perceived historical authenticity, authenticity perceptions, indexical authenticity, iconic authenticity, heritage authenticity, foodservice authenticity, brand authenticity, perceived authenticity, etc. Subjective object-based authenticity is selected that covers all toured objects including exhibits, settings, buildings, and events. A comprehensive definition for this type of authenticity is: Subjective object-based authenticity is tourists’ perception of the built or non-built environment being accurate or real in reflecting its origin, history, or tradition.