Depth Approach

Robertson (1961, p89) also claims that adolescents are not motivated if they learn several crafts superficially; they need to learn one in depth. She writes:

'All the really successful craft teachers I know have come to the same conclusion - which is borne out o f my own experience as a craftsman -

that...m uch more is to be gained from working out of one material, rather than taking up a new craft each year, far less each term '. Jeffrey (1985) holds the same view when he claims that providing pupils with 'tasters' o f many crafts is useless, because as a result they do not develop craft skills.

One problem with this argument, however, is that different pupils have affinities for different materials and need to be given opportunities to discover which they are best suited to (Robertson, 1952; Metcalf, 1997). As Robertson (1952) describes it:

For some, the intermittent tapping and hammering of beaten metal will accord with their bodily rhythms, for some the continuous side to side rhythm of weaving. Then again, some children dislike the tactile

sensation of clay, some of plastercine, to some fingering wool gives the utmost pleasure, to others wet wool is abhorrent, (p. 16)

2 .5 .3 .4 Enjoyment

Robertson (1952) makes the point that pupils particularly enjoy craft and therefore it is axiomatic that they are motivated to engage in it. Its popularity amongst the general public was noted in the Chapter 1. This is reflected in pupils' responses to it at school (Blanchford, 1961; Down, 1983) and is

confirmed by research carried out by Ross and Kamba (1997). In 1971 the latter found that it was the favourite activity of secondary pupils and this was also the case in a second survey carried out in 1996.

2.6 KEY FINDINGS

A finding from this part o f the review is that wom en's craft, w orkm en's craft and expressive craft exist in English and Welsh secondary schools, however at the time of writing I was unable to find evidence in the literature o f traditional craft having been practised.

Although each strand is distinctive, the rationales for women's and w orkm en's craft have much in common and they both entered schools for utilitarian and vocational reasons.

In English and Welsh secondary schools the status o f all three strands has been very low. This is because practical skills and tacit knowledge have been valued much less than academic achievement and instrumental knowledge. However, teachers of expressive craft have enjoyed a somewhat higher status than those of w orkm en's craft, because the former was associated with a higher social class.

A finding of the first part of the review is that the relationship between craft and industry is ambiguous. In the case of craft in secondary education, it has often been justified as a form o f pre-vocational industrial training. Since the 1960s, however, it has been considered to have less direct relevance to the world of work, in part because of the decline of industrial apprenticeships and changing practices in industry. This contributed to a reduction of craft in the w orkm en's strand and a concomitant rise of design and technology. Since this time craft has generally been justified in this strand in relation to design and technology, rather than in its own right.

Since 1944, most of the justifications for craft in secondary education have been psychological and humanistic, rather than vocational. Learning craft is alleged to give individual pupils supposed psychological benefits, such as pride and self-confidence, freedom, spiritual enrichment, enhanced aesthetic abilities and sensitivity to nature. However, it is claimed that the national curricula were introduced primarily to meet the needs of commerce and industry (Hughes, 1995; Steers, 1995). Since the benefits mentioned above do not appear to relate directly to the world o f work, the purpose o f craft in education seems to be uncertain.

It has been suggested that craft education has declined since the introduction o f the national curricula. However, the literature review suggest that whereas it has meant less time is being spent on craft by individual pupils, overall m ore o f them have some experience of it. In view o f the reductions in time for craft, it is probably significant that craft experts stress the importance of sustained work, rather than a superficial experience. Different pupils are stimulated by working with different materials and what really holds their interest is working in depth with a medium with which they feel an affinity (Robertson, 1952, 1961; Roberts, 1982; Jeffrey, 1985; Dormer, 1994).

Craft is learned best by doing and observing others and is a tacit form of knowledge that cannot be written down. The apprentice system is an effective way o f achieving this. Craft was taught through an apprentice system for hundreds o f years, before it became a part of formal schooling. No matter which media are used, overall craft is extremely popular with pupils.

Pupils are more likely to want to engage in craft if they make artefacts that relate to their own lives and culture. It is also claimed that their motivation is increased by a sense of achievement, which is qualitatively different from pride in other school work.

2.7 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF CRAFT

The tentative definition of craft arrived at in the last chapter was that it is a material technique, which requires tacit skill, ‘some degree o f hand making and an uncompromising pursuit o f quality’ (Ellul, 1964; Levien, 1998, p. 89).

Robertson (1952, p56) claims that there is more than one concept o f craft in schools. However, her definition appears to have been influenced by her A rt background and she is firm in her belief that craft cannot include another's design, nor 'dexterity practised for its own sake, rather than in the service o f a creative w hole'. Moreover, she claims that '...unless it includes a creative element, it cannot be craft. Instead, it is mere handw ork'. Her view is that much needlework in Domestic Science and woodwork does not meet her criteria and is 'merely handwork'.

Whereas her view pre-dates this research by forty-five years, it provide insights into how craft has been conceptualised in Art. She claims painting is not craft, but an art, because it is in the same category as poetry, or music. In particular, she states (1952, p .56) that '...in school u se...art is drawing and painting and craft is work with other m aterials'. This distinction follows the view o f Read (1952). It also supports the decision made at the outset of my research to

exclude painting and drawing, although I acknowledged there is an argument for considering them to be craft.

I consider that the emphasis on creativity identified in this review is a corollary of the expressive craft strand. It could be that the importance attached to design in D&T has also brought about an emphasis on creativity in the w orkm en's and women's strands. However, I do not presume this to be the case and do not

want to support a definition that is biased towards one strand and therefore I shall continue to exclude creativity from my definition.

Craft education experts consider that the practice o f craft necessitates the use o f tacit skills, handling materials and perseverance. None of these are unique to a particular strand of craft in schools. Therefore I shall continue with the

CHAPTER 4