The next step in our employee training model involves developing and test- ing the training materials. A wide variety of employee training methods are available, ranging from the relatively simple and straightforward to the fairly complex and sophisticated. In actual practice, most comprehensive training programs utilize a combination of several training methods and techniques.
It is important to pilot test the training materials, perhaps by using a group of workers who can provide their reactions to the materials and the program. This process leads to a refinement of the training materials and improvement in the program. Let’s look at some of the more common training materials and methods.
Employee training methods can be grouped into two broad categories: the on-site methods, or those conducted on the job site, and the off-site methods, or those conducted away from the actual workplace.
Stop & Review
What are the five steps in a good employee training program?
On-site methods
On-site training methods may be further divided into several categories, including on-the-job training, apprenticeship, vestibule training, and job rotation.
On-the-job training—One of the oldest and most widely used training meth- ods, on-the-job training consists simply of putting an inexperienced worker in the workplace and having a more experienced worker teach that person about the job. This technique thus relies on principles of modeling, with the experienced worker serving as the role model. Also, because actual hands-on learning is involved, the worker can receive immediate feedback, be reinforced for successful efforts, and have a chance to learn how to correct errors.
The popularity of on-the-job training is obvious because it requires lit- tle preparation and has few costs to the organization, aside from the time invested by the experienced worker. Moreover, because the trainee is actually working while learning, certain small levels of output offset the costs of the supervising worker’s time. However, problems occur when the organization neglects to consider the abilities and motivations of the experienced work- ers who serve as trainers. If these trainers do not see the personal benefits of serving as trainers (especially when there are no obvious benefits!), they will not be motivated to do a good job. Also, being a good trainer requires certain qualities, such as patience and an ability to communicate. If the trainer lacks these characteristics, this can interfere with trainees’ learning. For example, one study found that experienced trainers often presented ideas abstractly or spoke “over- the-heads” of trainees (Hinds, Patterson, & Pfeffer, 2001). Problems can also arise if the trainer does not know or follow proper work procedures. In this case, the trainer may teach the new worker wrong or inefficient methods.
On-the-job training is best used when the trainers have been carefully selected because of their ability to teach and when they have received system- atic training to help them be more effective. Trainers should also receive some type of reward or recognition for performing their training duties. Finally, the organization must accept the fact that during the on-the-job training period, production rates will suffer. It is impossible to expect the trainer–trainee team to do a good job of training while simultaneously maintaining high output rates. It has been suggested that to be effective, on-the-job training should be used with other training methods, including off-site methods such as seminars and programmed instruction (Wexley & Latham, 1991).
Apprenticeship—Skilled trade professions, such as carpentry, printing, masonry, and plumbing, use a very old type of training program called apprenticeship. A typical apprenticeship can last for several years and usually combines some supervised on-the-job training experience (usually at least 2,000 hours) with classroom instruction. The on-the-job experience allows the apprentice to learn the mechanics of the profession, whereas the classroom training usually teaches specific cognitive skills and rules and regulations associated with the
on-the-job training an employee training method of placing a worker in the workplace to learn firsthand about a job
Stop & Review
Describe the four levels of training needs analysis.
apprenticeship a training technique, usually lasting several years, that combines on-the-job experi- ence with classroom instruction
A Model for Successful Training Programs 171 profession (Harris, Simons, Willis, & Carden, 2003). For example, an appren-
tice in the housing construction industry will learn the mechanical skills of building a house while on the job and will learn about building codes and how to read blueprints in the classroom. The obvious advantage of apprenticeship programs is the detailed, long-term nature of the learning process. However, there have been charges from civil rights groups that apprentices are dispropor- tionately chosen from majority groups and that women and members of ethnic minorities have been selectively omitted. However, affirmative action programs in many apprenticed professions have attempted to rectify these problems (Carnevale, Gainer, & Villet, 1990; Wexley & Yukl, 1984).
It is important to mention that the term apprenticeship has been used to describe a number of training programs that are quite different from traditional, formal apprenticeship. These informal “apprenticeships” might be better labeled as “mentorships,” because they typically do not have the strict combination of hands-on learning and classroom training required by formal apprenticeships. We will discuss mentoring a bit later when we look at the use of mentoring in managerial training.
Vestibule training—Vestibule training is another on-site training method. This method uses a separate training area adjacent to the actual work area to simulate that setting, complete with comparable tools and equipment. In vestibule training, professional trainers teach the new workers all aspects of the job, allowing them hands-on experience in the work simulation area. The main advantage of vestibule training is that there is no disruption of actual production, because trainers rather than experienced workers provide instruction, and the novice workers are not in the actual work setting. The major drawback to this method is its costs in terms of the trainers, space, and equipment needed. In recent years, some large supermarkets have set up vestibule training areas at closed check-out stations to teach prospective checkers how to operate laser scanners and cash registers to ring up goods. Vestibule training is used to eliminate the delays to customers that inevitably occur when using on-the-job training.
Job rotation—A final on-site training method is job rotation, in which work- ers are rotated among a variety of jobs, spending a certain length of time (usually several weeks to two months) at each. The basic premise behind job rotation is to expose workers to as many areas of the organization as possible so they can gain a good knowledge of its workings and how the various jobs and departments fit together. Job rotation can also be beneficial to the orga- nization because of “cross training” of workers. Thus, if a worker is absent or quits, another worker has already been trained to perform the job. Most com- monly, job rotation is used to help entry-level management personnel find the positions for which they are best suited. It can also be used to groom managers for higher-level positions, presumably making them more effective by enabling them to see the organization from a variety of perspectives. Research has shown that job rotation not only increases learning, but it also has positive effects
vestibule training training that uses a separate area adjacent to the work area to simulate the actual work setting
job rotation a method of rotating workers among a variety of jobs to increase their breadth of knowledge
on employees’ career progression and development (Campion, Cheraskin, & Stevens, 1994; Ortega, 2001). Job rotation has also been used in various team approaches to work task design to increase worker flexibility, eliminate bore- dom, and increase worker job satisfaction and commitment to the organiza- tion (Wexley & Latham, 2001). For example, studies of nurses in Japan found that job rotation allowed the nurses to understand more about their hospitals and their organizations’ missions, leading to greater commitment to their jobs and hospitals.
It is important to mention, however, that job rotation does not consist of simply moving workers from task to task with little or no preparation. A careful analysis of training needs should be done for each position to which a worker is rotated. It is also important to orient and train the worker adequately on each task. Finally, an evaluation should be done of the worker’s performance at each task, and the effectiveness of the overall job rotation training experience should be conducted.
Off-site methods
Training that takes place in a setting other than the actual workplace uses off-site methods. Because of the greater flexibility and control over the situation they afford, off-site methods are more varied and diverse than the on-site techniques. We will consider several off-site methods: seminars, audiovisual instruction, behavior modeling training, simulation techniques, programmed instruction, and computer-assisted instruction.
Seminars—A very common method of employee training, and one that is very familiar to students, is the seminar, which typically involves some expert providing job-related information orally in a classroom-like setting. Although this method of training allows a large number of workers to be trained simulta- neously at relatively low cost, it has some drawbacks. First, because the seminar is primarily a one-way form of communication, employees may not become highly involved in the learning process. Also, it is unclear whether workers will be able to translate the information they receive from seminars into an actual performance of work behaviors. Finally, the seminar method is often only as good as the presenter. A training program presented by a speaker who is unprepared and speaks in a monotone is unlikely to lead to any significant learning. In fact, one early study found that the seminar was one of the least effective of various employee training methods (Carroll, Paine, & Ivancevich, 1972). On a more positive note, however, seminar methods of instruction have been shown to be an effective learning strategy, particularly when used with more educated workers, such as when seminars are used in managerial and leadership training (Avolio, Reichard, Hannah, Walumbwa, & Chan, 2009; Burke & Day, 1986). Another study found a positive impact of an employee health promotion program on healthful behaviors of employees and reduced absenteeism (Mills, Kessler, Cooper, & Sullivan, 2007). Of course, seminars can be made even more effective if the lecture presentation is combined with question-and-answer periods or audience discussion to encourage a more “active” learning process.
seminar
a common training method in which an expert provides job- related information in a classroom-like setting
A Model for Successful Training Programs 173 Audiovisual instruction—Audiovisual instruction uses videos to train workers.
In effect, audiovisual instruction is a seminar provided in a different format. Although there may be some fairly large initial costs for purchase or development of training materials, the audiovisual method can be even more cost effective than traditional seminar techniques if large numbers of employees are going to be trained.
As in seminars, the quality of audiovisual instruction determines its effectiveness as a training tool. In many instances, a video can be more entertain- ing than a seminar and may do a better job of attracting the audience’s atten- tion. An obvious problem occurs, however, when the informational content is sacrificed for entertainment value.
Audiovisual presentations are especially effective when the information is presented visually rather than verbally. A few minutes of video can visually dem- onstrate manual operations (with instant replay, stop action, or slow motion) or can expose workers to a number of different locations and settings, both of which would be impossible in a seminar presentation. Moreover, recorded audiovisual programs can ensure uniformity of training by exposing all workers to the same information. For example, one company has prepared a video presentation giving new employees information about company policies, procedures, and employee rights and benefits in a thorough, graphic, and cost-effective manner.
Behavior modeling training—Another employee training technique is behavior modeling training (Decker & Nathan, 1985; Goldstein & Sorcher, 1974). In
behavior modeling training, which is based on social learning theory, trainees are
audiovisual instruction the use of films, video- tapes, and other elec- tronic media to convey training material
behavior modeling training
a training method that exposes trainees to role models performing appropriate and inap- propriate work behav- iors and their outcomes and then allows trainees to practice modeling the appropriate behaviors
At an insurance company’s training facility, claims adjusters are given audiovisual in- struction as well as hands-on experience.
exposed to videotaped or live role models displaying both appropriate and inap- propriate work behaviors as well as their successful or unsuccessful outcomes. Trainees are then allowed an opportunity to try to replicate and practice the positive work behaviors. Research indicates that behavior modeling training, if used correctly, can effectively improve employee job performance (Mann & Decker, 1984; Meyer & Raich, 1983; Taylor, Russ-Eft, & Chan, 2005). Behavior modeling training was also shown to be effective in computer software training (Gist, Schwoerer, & Rosen, 1989) and in training U.S. government employees for working in Japan (Harrison, 1992). In another interesting study, behav- ior modeling training was found to be more effective than either seminars or programmed instruction (see later discussion) in training computer operators (Simon & Werner, 1996). Recent research suggests that for learning complex tasks, even behavior modeling training needs to be followed up to ensure that the training transfers to the actual work setting (May & Kahnweiler, 2000). Behavior modeling may be a particularly effective strategy for ethics training, where models can demonstrate complex ethical and moral decision making and actions (Kaptein, 2011).
Simulation techniques—Simulation training is a method of replicating job condi- tions to instruct employees in proper work operations without actually putting them in the job setting. Jet pilots, astronauts, and nuclear power plant operators are all subjected to intensive simulation training before they are allowed to con- trol the complex and dangerous machinery that they will operate on the job. Simulation training allows the worker hours of practice under conditions that are quite similar to the actual work setting, without allowing the possibility of damaging the equipment, the product, the environment, or themselves.
Most commonly, simulation training uses replications of complex machin- ery or equipment, such as jet cockpit flight simulators or mock-ups of the con- trol panels used by nuclear power plant operators. Other simulations may be designed to give trainees exposure to what would normally be very hazardous working conditions. For example, a Southern California police department has constructed a mock city (complete with a bank and a convenience store!) for use in training police personnel in simulated emergency conditions. Police trainees attempt to foil simulated robbery attempts and rescue hostages from terrorists using the mock city and blank ammunition. According to the police authorities, the realism of this simulation has led to better preparation of new officers in dealing with actual life-threatening situations. As you can imagine, simulation training is often very expensive. However, the chance for hands-on experience, immediate feedback, and repeated practice makes it a very effective technique. Web-based training. More and more, employee training is being done through Web-based, interactive programs. Webinars (live or recorded) are replac- ing seminar and audiovisual programs. More than a decade ago, Whalen and Wright (2000) argued that much of future training will be Web-based due to the flexibility and scope of the training programs that can be delivered via the web, the convenience of having training “on demand,” when employees need it, and the relatively low cost of Web-based training in comparison to “live” employee
simulation
training that replicates job conditions without placing the trainee in the actual work setting
A Model for Successful Training Programs 175 training programs. For example, a Web-based health promotion training pro-
gram was found to have positive effects on employee health, but at a much lower cost than a live training program (Williams & Day, 2011).
Web-based training has incorporated an older form of learning, known as
programmed instruction.
Programmed instruction involves the use of self-paced individualized train-
ing. Each trainee is provided with either printed materials or, more commonly, Web-based content to learn and then answers a series of questions that test how much learning has taken place. When test answers are substantially correct, the trainee is instructed to move on to the next unit. If the questions are answered incorrectly, some review of the previous unit is required. Most of the student study guides that accompany college textbooks are examples of programmed instruction.
The benefits of programmed instruction are that it is efficient, because individuals proceed at their own paces, and that it provides immediate feed- back. In addition, programmed instruction is an “active,” involved form of learning. Furthermore, although the development of such programs is time consuming, the initial cost diminishes greatly over time if large numbers of employees are trained. A problem can arise, however, in keeping the programs up-to-date, especially in fields where there are rapid changes in technology or in the types of products produced or services performed, requiring that new instruction programs must be continually created.
Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is a more sophisticated approach
to individualized employee training. Although CAI is actually a form of programmed instruction, CAI systems offer the flexibility to change and update the instructional programs continually. CAI also allows for immediate testing of the trainee’s learning because the computer can ask questions and instantly score the correctness of responses, automatically returning the trainee to the earlier lesson if the answers are incorrect, and quickly presenting the next unit when the answers are correct (recall the computer-adaptive and Web- based testing discussed in Chapter 5). Typically, training organizations offer Web-based courses that can also generate detailed data on each trainee’s per- formance across all the lessons. One problem with individualized instruction, such as CAI, is that some employees may not have the self-motivation to learn and may do better in formal, “live” training programs (Brown, 2001).
A recent development in CAI is computerized, interactive programs that combine audiovisual techniques, programmed instruction, and simulation techniques. With these programs, a trainee may be presented with a video representation of a work situation. The computer then asks questions about which course of action the trainee would like to take. The response is then used to choose the next video segment, where the trainee can see the results of the choice played out. One such program, used for management training, exposes the trainee to a variety of difficult interpersonal and decision-making situations. The trainee is brought into a simulated work situation with actors portraying the roles of coworkers. In one setting, the trainee might need to deal with a subordinate who is angry about having been given a negative per- formance appraisal. In another situation, the trainee may be asked to play the
programmed instruction self-paced individual- ized training in which trainees are provided with training materials