The development and trade of medicinal and aromatic plants in Morocco Quite apart from the adoption of decentralised measures, Morocco has signed the

American Free Trade agreement and is about to join the 2010 European agreement. In

101 the context of Euro-Mediterranean trade relations, the European Union is the main trading partner. In 2004, €6 billion of Moroccan exports went to the EU, 62% of these comprised textiles and agricultural products (Melad 2008). Clearly, access to European markets is of prime importance for Morocco given its slower rate of economic growth (Kuiper 2006). It is, therefore, well-placed to take advantage of the growing demand for medicinal and aromatic plants containing essential oils outlined in the preceding sections of this chapter.

Morocco is the ninth largest exporter of medicinal and aromatic plants on a global scale (Ozhatay et al. 1997), and after Turkey is the second most biologically diverse country in term of species in the Mediterranean basin. This biodiversity comprises some 41 ecosystems and 7000 vegetal species of which 4500 are vascular plants. The rich variety of ecosystems, habitats and endemic species is due to its climatic and altitudinal variability. Because of its geographical situation in the Mediterranean basin, rich flora and high endemism, the country offers an important potential for the further production of aromatic and medicinal plants. Six hundred species are listed as having medicinal and aromatic uses and harvested from the wild or cultivated. Commercially, they are used mainly in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, culinary and food industries (USAID 2006). Morocco currently exports medicinal plants to the value of 300 million dirham, and essential oils to the value of 165 million dirham.

Not only does this suggest potential for further development in the industry but it is a promising sector for adding value to otherwise fragile and marginal landscapes, and for providing employment, especially in isolated rural communities. The main species harvested are Rosemary officinalis (from which 60 tons of essential oil are extracted and exported), Thyme and Lavender species, Artemisia herba alba, Mentha pulgemium, Origanum compactum and Coriander sativum. Thyme, in particular, of the plants in the traditional pharmacopoeia, is a promising source of antibacterial and anti-inflammatory products. Of the other species of thyme, Thymus vulgaris thymoliferum presents a higher antibacterial content than Thymus satureioides, which is more concentrated in anti-oxidant and anti-infectious activity (Chorianopoulos et al. 2004). More specifically, Thymus satureioides yields an essential oil also called borneol thyme that is indicated in respiratory viral or bacterial chronic infections, arthritis, rheumatism, deep physical and sexual asthenia, cystitis, leucorrhoea, acne and infected wounds. Externally, applications are multiple from local applications for respiratory ailments, locally for dermatitis, and in fumigation for acne and skin trouble (Hyteck 2006).

102 5.7 The economic value of thyme in the Agoundis valley

The main harvesting of thyme occurs during the summer period. However, other species are also collected from gardens, often during planting or weeding, or at other times during wood collection in the mountains. The drying process is simple, the plants usually being left to dry in the open air, and then stored in a corner of a room, and used medicinally as required. Though Thyme, (azoukni), does not quite fall into the category of an ecological or cultural key stone species (Paine 1995; Turner and Garibaldi 2004), nor is it employed in religious ritual in El Maghzen, it has a high social profile because of its wide use in the community, particularly as a medicine and as a source of cash income (Christancho and Vinning 2004).

Thyme is harvested from mid May to mid July (Appendix 3), collectively and by women, who arrange to go up to the mountains in the early morning or late afternoon, usually after four in the afternoon to avoid the heat. Harvesting takes place on the mountain flanks, is not without danger and accidents do happen. The thyme harvest is important for both women and men as there are no other comparable income generating activities in the valley, and although it is only for a couple of months a year it is a valuable contribution to the household economy (table 5.1 and 5.2).

Table 5.1: Percentage female responses to a questionnaire on thyme harvesting (N=140).

Villages Thyme harvesting is a significant source of money

Thyme harvesting is the only source of money

El Maghzen 96% 4%

Tagdite 93% 7%

Mejjou 92% 8%

Tenfit 91% 9%

Ighir Tazoughart

84% 16%

Tijrichte 83% 17%

Tarbat 100% X

Ijoukak 84% 16%

103 Table 5.2: Percentage male responses to thyme harvesting questionnaire (N=114).

Villages Thyme harvesting is a significant is shown in table 5.3 and table 5.4. Thyme is brought back to the house. From there it is collected at a later stage by middlemen. On market days (either a Tuesday or Wednesday), it may occasionally be taken directly to the souk by the men, or taken straight to the village shop where the middlemen or shop keeper will pay on the spot.

On average, harvesters will get between 1 and 2 dirham¹⁶ per kilogram (table 5.5; table 5.6) for the collection of fresh thyme. For women, this generates an income ranging from 1338 to 7822 dirham for a two-month period, and for men, an average income ranging from 3469 to 7962 dirham (table 5.7).

Table 5.3: Quantities of thyme harvested per woman per village per day (Field data

104 Table 5.4: Quantities of thyme harvested per man per village per day (Field data 2008).

Villages Total kgs collected per

Table 5.5: Average price paid in dirham to women for collecting fresh thyme (Field data 2008).

Table 5.6: Average price paid in dirham to men for collecting fresh thyme (Field data 2008).

105 Table 5. 7: Average income in dirham from fresh thyme over a period of two months (Field data 2008).

Villages Men Women

Tijrichte 7963 7822

Ighir-Tazoughart 6738 4526

Tarbat 6222 4360

El Maghzen 5481 4352

Tenfit 3934 3729

Tagdite 3921 3096

Mejjou 3547 1338

Ijoukak 3469 0

0 means ‘no thyme’

Sometimes, people will buy food from the store in exchange for the harvest or may get a cash advance from a wholesaler. Other families may keep the thyme at home for longer periods, spread it over the terrace and let it dry in the sun for a few days, turning it over every so often with a fork. It may contain a lot of debris in the dried form and will require further cleaning at a later stage. Although the weight of thyme is less once it has been dried (table 5.8), it is nonetheless a more valuable commodity in the dried form and people tend to sell it for a better price than fresh thyme (tables 5.9 and 5.10). It may also be kept back for future transactions, for when the crop is scarce and will fetch a higher price. Thyme prices may fluctuate greatly depending on availability, as it is highly dependent on rain and other environmental factors (Neffati, Ouled Belgacem and El Mourid 2009).

106 Table 5.8: Yields of fresh thyme compared with yields of dry thyme per village

(Field data 2008).

Table 5.9: Average price in dirham paid per kilogram of dried thyme (Field data 2008).

Villages Average price

107 Table 5.10: Average income in dirham from dried thyme over a period of two months (Field data 2008).

Villages Men Women

Ighir-Tazoughart 1994 427

Ijoukak 2684 3900

Mejjou 1487 0

Tagdite 1255 1342

Tarbat 1800 2523

Tenfit 2091 2046

Tijrichte 3000 2629

0 means ‘no thyme’

The figures provided in tables 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, however, represent only a small part of the total production as thyme, as it is also collected on a much larger scale by men on the higher slopes, where sage (Salvia aucheri) is also to be found and collected. The harvest from these areas is dried in situ, and mounds of dried stems are a common sight. Other villagers from surrounding communities may collect on the same slopes and one or two members of the village will sleep over for a few days to guard the plant material against theft. Indeed, in estimating total production we must also add huge quantities of illegally harvested thyme to that harvested legally by companies who operate under adjudication and which require official stamps from the local authorities in order to export produce from the valley (Montanari 2004). From the interviews I conducted in the villages involved in the thyme distillation project, I have calculated an average of 10.91 tons of fresh thyme per day collected over the eight villages, corresponding to an estimated 660 tons of thyme per season, an average sale of 14, 296, 4587 dirham or € 1,277 or £ 1,132 per day. The amount of dried thyme sold in a day for the eight villages amounts to 628.28kg, with an average price of 4 dirham per kg, and a total of 2817 dirham or €252 or £223 per day. The average price of dried thyme sold in the souk in Marrakech ranges from 60 to 80 dirham a kilogram and can fetch up to 120 dirham.

However, the opportunity for large profits not only benefits a handful of middlemen with the means to transport the merchandise (figure 5.1), but especially officials, who are keen not to disrupt this trading arrangement. One of the objectives of the Marrakech-based NGO, CDRT, was to break this cartel with its inequalities and disparities. A second objective was to improve the economic infrastructure (poor road

108 system, lack of vehicular transport, credit facilities, and vital market information) which inevitably jeopardises marketing potential (Kruijssen and Mysore 2007; Gruère et al.

2007; Van Damme and Scheldeman 2009).