The design protocol literature indicates that there are four ways of building the structure of coding schemes in protocol studies (Purcell et al., 1996:225-227); (a) data generated structure, (b) externally derived structure (c) theory derived structure and (d) grounded theory approach.
Data generated structure in a coding scheme is generated after the transcribed protocols have been categorised and reviewed. Therefore the data gathered dictates the structure of the coding scheme. However, there has been a tendency towards imposing externally derived structures onto a coding scheme. Those external structures occur when parts of an already established coding scheme are used to develop another one. On the other hand, theory derived structures occur when part of a coding scheme is generated through a particular theory and subsequently tested (Gabriel, 2000). A potentially richer approach cited by Purcell et al. (1996: 225), is using a fourth method; which is the ‘grounded theory’ method by Glaser and Strauss (1967). Grounded theory provides a systematic method involving several stages which is used to ‘ground’ the theory, or relate it to the ‘reality’ of the phenomenon under consideration (Scott, 1996). This allows for multiple coding of the data and feeding it back to the coding scheme. According to Radcliffe (1996: 345) the text units are then revisited, with the possibility of each text unit being coded under multiple categories.
The unique activity of the design review meant relying on several sources to construct the coding scheme; which consisted of a number of stages:
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Investigating existing coding schemes and relating them to our research enquiry; using predefined categories, while customising others.
Recording and observing a number of initial (pilot) face-to-face and mediated design reviews to build and create an initial coding scheme.
Testing and allowing the initial coding schemes to evolve during preliminary analysis stages; the re-examination and the development of our line of thinking during the research stages and the need of new data sets with the development of the research formation also required adding more categories to suit the study’s objectives.
Finalising the ‘Review Interaction Protocol’.
The stages of development are illustrated in Figure 4-4, while the following subsections discuss each of these stages.
Figure 4-4 Development Stages of the Research Coding Scheme: The Review Interaction Protocol
4.3.1 Exploring Existing Coding Schemes: Externally Derived Structuring
The works of (Cross et al., 1996; Sudweeks and Rafaeli, 1996; Gunawardena et al., 1997; O’Conail and Whittaker, 1997; Olson et al., 1997; Gabriel, 2000; Dorst and Cross, 2001; Weidong, 2005; Tang et al., 2011) were investigated and reviewed to create a bases of our coding scheme, these studies focused on verbal communication in design teams, and design learning. However, most of the studies only related to drawing and sketching as the only nonverbal mode of communication in the design activity and it was found that detailed nonverbal interaction analysis in the learning context was not included in their analyses. Two of those studies in particular presented us with categories similar to the
Initial Structuring Based on our Design review Conceptualisation Initial Coding Scheme Investigating Existing Coding Schemes Final Coding Scheme Development & Re- examination
1- Investigation & Build-up Stage (Externally and Theory Derived Structure)
2- Development Stage (Data Generated Structure)
3- Finalising Stage (Grounded Theory)
Pilot Face-to- Face and Virtual
113 nature of this research inquiry, and were therefore used with some modifications; these are namely:
(1) Gabriel’s (2000) ‘Verbal Communication in Collaborative Design’ coding scheme, where two dimensions of categorisation were found to address both information delivery and communication management in face-to-face and online environments which relate to some required fields in our investigation. The first category is Communication Control which examines interruptions, floor holding, and acknowledgements. And the second is Communication Technology which examines content in regards to the use of tools, media and the mediated environment.
(2) Weidong’s (2005) ‘Content Analysis’ coding scheme where two other dimensions were best at describing the Cognitive Level of the discourse which describes the quality of the dialogue and indicates learning delivery by describing discourse as descriptive or deliberative, and the Critique Level of the design review which relates to what is criticised and how it is criticised also as indicators of learning delivery.
While another set of studies looked specifically at nonverbal communication in design communications, these included studying ‘design actions’ (Tang, 1991), ‘design gestures’ (Bekker et al., 1995) and ‘design moves’ (Iordanova et al., 2006) but did not combine these actions in one standard coding scheme that relates other embodied communication specific to learning contexts.
In addition, examples of studies that looked into online interaction in design-related areas are the works of, (McLeod, 1991; Tang, 1991; Gay and Lentini, 1995; Brereton et al., 1996; Al-Qawasmi et al., 1999; Gero and Tang, 1999; Rouet and Passerault, 1999; Gabriel, 2000; Ucelli, 2002; Vasques DeVelasco and Zhang, 2004; Bellamy et al., 2005; Weidong, 2005; Tang et al., 2011). Yet these studies also only related to 2D online environments. The research of (Robertson, 1997; Shelden, 1997; Earle, 2001; Manninen and Kujanpää, 2002; Henri and Pudelko, 2003) were the only ones which have been located that studied nonverbal communication of Avatars in virtual worlds and mediated embodied modes. Yet have not as well referred to design communication and learning, and also did not combine interactions in one coding scheme. This prompted the need to rely on actual observations
114 of on-going face-to-face and mediated design reviews in order to build a sufficient coding scheme.
4.3.2 Initial Structuring of the Coding Scheme
A coding scheme was initially constructed into six dimensions of interactions. The first dimension of the coding scheme described the ‘structure’ of the design review; and was built according to the logical thematic structure of the design review discussed in Chapter Two, thus, ‘theory derived’, interactions were categorised to three main phases where each phase consists of the verbal operations that build the dialogue specific to each phase, these phases are: (1) Presenting/ Sharing Information Phase: which includes operations such as; introduction, definition, description. (2) Discussion Phase: which includes operations such as; elaboration, explanation, revisiting, referencing. (3) Evaluation/Feedback Phase: which includes operations such as; acceptance, rejection, direct evaluation, further instructions.
Using Gabriel’s, (2000) and Weidong’s, (2005) categorisations as explained above, four more dimensions described communication control, technology communication and the cognitive levels of the discourse and the critique level of discourse.
The sixth dimension related to the nonverbal mode of communication, which included basic information from theories on nonverbal communication from the works of (Knapp, 1978; Kendon, 1980; Druckman et al., 1982; McNeill, 1986) and then were customised for design review interactions by the researcher; these included subcategories such as, gesturing, body movements and facial expressions. The initial coding scheme is shown in Figure 4-5.
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Figure 4-5 Dimensions of the Initial Coding Scheme
While developing the initial coding scheme, random segments of transcribed data from the initial observations were coded as a test, but it was soon realised that some data did not fit any of the developed categories, the observations reviled that several external data and theory derived categories and sub-categories needed to be modified. In addition, data- generated categories needed to be added and/or detailed to allow for accurate analysis. This was particularly relevant to the ‘nonverbal’ dimension of the initial coding scheme, as well the ‘structure’ dimensions. The following subsection describes the pilot observations and their role in developing the coding scheme.
4.3.3 Pilot Observations: Data Derived Structuring
As Van Teijlingen and Hundley (2001) discuss; “pilot studies can inform us about the best
research process and occasionally about likely outcomes”. Four face-to-face and two virtual
Design Review Structure and Phases Nonverbal Communication Communication Control Technology Communication Cognitive Level Critique Level Initial Coding Scheme
Presentation Phase, Discussion Phase & Evaluation and Feedback Phase- (Theory
Derived, by the Author)
Gesturing, Body Movements & Facial Expressions- (Theory Derived from
Knapp, 1978 & Druckman et al., 1982) Level of Deliberative Discourse- (Parts Externally
Derived from Weidong, 2005 and Theory Derived by the Author)
Discussing Tools & Media- (Externally Derived from Gabriel, 2000)
Interruptions, Floor Holding & Acknowledgements-
(Parts Externally Derived from Gabriel, 2000)
What is being Criticised- (Externally Derived from Weidong, 2005)
116 pilot observational studies were carried out in the physical and virtual contexts. The aim was mainly to ‘explore the ground’ through observation and evaluation (Sarantakos, 1993) employing smaller versions of the main study. In addition, these observations played a role in developing the coding scheme by adding and/or framing data derived categories.
Four face-to-face design reviews of different academic stages in the school of Architecture, Planning and Landscape were closely observed; hand written notes and quick sketches of the placements in the physical settings were taken. This helped identify how the verbal discourse of the design review is constructed. In addition to that, the relationship between the students, the tutors, gathered students and the drawings was made clear in order to start designing the mediated settings of the virtual design review.
Two pilot studies in the virtual world were also conducted with the help of the researcher’s colleagues and technical officers in the university. The initial potentials of 3D virtual worlds as a media for communication were examined in these two studies; by learning more about basic usability problems when using the software. This also created an opportunity to practice how to build and use the interface and learn about virtual data capturing methods. Moreover, preparations for the actual studies were built on the information gathered from these exploratory studies.
The pilot observations proved to be significant by allowing the examination of nonverbal communication in both physical and virtual settings; this allowed adding new categories particularly data about facial expressions and pointing as a subcategory of gesturing. The following section discusses the final coding scheme developed in this thesis; ‘The Review Interaction Protocol’.