Development of Upland: Second Priority

Unlike tidal swamps, upland development in Indonesia has been neglected and has lagged behind lowlands development (Adjid, 1991:4; IFAD, 1987:1; 1 Kepas, 1988:68; Satari et al, 1991). Extensive upland areas inhabited predominantly by swidden cultivators have generally been considered to be marginal with low agricultural potential. In contrast, lowlands have historically played the most important role in national political, economic, and agricultural development. The Indonesian government has paid less attention to the improvement of the uplands physical and social infrastuctures, such as roads and agricultural extension services (IFAD, 1987:1).

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The development of uplands became a serious national government concern only during the early 1980s, when about 15 upland projects were implemented throughout Indonesia. However, these projects were mainly concentrated on regreening upland Java. Seminars were also held to discuss problems and to provide appropriate solutions, technologies and farming systems (Semaoen et al, 1991:3).

The change in national policy to a focus on upland development stems from a concern about population pressure and its environmental effects on uplands. The national family planning program, although remarkably successful in reducing the rate of population increase, did not reduce population pressure on land. The population censuses of 1971, 1980 and 1990 show that the proportion of the Indonesian population working in the agricultural sector declined from 61 per cent in 1971 to 49 per cent in 1990. However, the absolute numbers increased from 25.1 million in 1971 to 35.4 million people in 1990 (Biro Pusat Statistik, 1975:table 40 and 1991b:table 36.9).

The increased population pressure on land caused economic and environmental problems. These problems were particularly serious in Java where farmers grew food and cash crops intensively on infertile and fragile soils (Donner, 1987:102-3; Nibbering, 1991:104). A 1988 USAID-GOI report concluded that many areas of Java's steep uplands were seriously eroded and economically poor.

Land which has become so degraded that it is, or soon will be, unable to sustain even subsistence agriculture (USAID-GOI cited in Roche, 1988:3).

Extensive soil degradation of the uplands occurred not only in Java, but also in some parts of the Outer Islands (Hardjono, 1991:3). Coffee smallholders

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in Lampung and pepper growers between Balikpapan and Samarinda in East Kalimantan, for example, caused increased hillside erosion (Hardjono, 1991:12).

Uplands are widespread at different altitudes throughout the nation, but there is no precise estimate of their area. Experts use different definitions of upland and have produced estimates ranging from 124 million (Sitompul, 1991:5) to 150 million hectares (Satari et al, 1991:2). About 50 million hectares were considered to have potential for agriculture.

In East Kalimantan, only 5-6 per cent (about 1.1-1.4 million hectares) of the total land area was considered to have potential for agriculture (TAD, 1979:69; Pangestu, 1989:154) (Map 2.3). Most of this is upland (Map 2.4). By 1989, about one-quarter (315,000 hectares) of the area suitable for agriculture was opened up for upland agriculture, including institutional and private estates

{Kantor Statistik Kalimantan Timur, 1990:145-157).

The area of upland agriculture grew quite rapidly during the 1980s with an annual increase of 3.3 per cent {Kantor Statistik Kalimantan Timur, 1990:145- 157) largely because of government programs, particularly the transmigration program. The increase was also caused by government regulations banning traditional methods of logging and restricting raw log exports during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Consequently, thousands of workers, mostly from Java, became jobless. Many moved to rural areas as gatherers of forest products and others became swidden cultivators, stimulating the expansion of swidden cultivation (Vargas, 1985:141). The development of infrastructures for timber and oil extraction and for general services also indirectly assisted local cultivators and migrants to utilise the surrounding areas for upland agriculture, often in swidden cultivation rather than in permanent fields (Hidayati, 1990:44; Kartawinata and Vayda, 1984:114; Vayda et al, 1985:215).

52 119°E --- International boundary ---Provincial boundary 0 Primary centre ■ Secondary centre • Tertiary centre Longbawan Malinau- Tarakan Laut Sulawesi MALAYSIA • Longnawang 'Sangkulirang Bontang KALIMANTAN TENGAH Melak 'enggarong f f / / " ) SAMARINDA B ukit V illage | Upland agriculture [Y' j Lowland agriculture Balikapan

Selal Makassar

2 ° S -

KALIMANTAN SELATAN

Map 2.3 Agricultural Potential Areas in East Kalimantan

53 100 Nunykan ---International boundary — — Provincial boundary 9 Primary centre ■ Secondary centre • Tertiary centre Malmauy Tarakan Laut Sulawesi MALAYSIA Tanjungredeb twang : ,5 Muarawahau 'Sangkulirang Bontang KALIMANTAN TENGAH Kotabangui M elak* Tenggarong SAMARINDA B u k it V illa g e ] M ountain/upland region j Volcanic region L;L| Coastal region Bahkapan Selat Makassar Tanahgrogot 2 °S ~ KALIMANTAN SELATAN

Map 2.4 The Area o f Upland in East Kalimantan Sources: Voss and TA D , 1979

Growing concern about the development of uplands has focused especially on the long-term economic, social and ecological stability of large-scale upland development. Concern also extends 'downstream', because environmental degradation in the uplands, particularly through soil erosion, reduces the stability and sustainability of production in adjacent lowlands. Low productivity and resource depletion are the most common problems of upland agriculture (Kepas, 1988:7; Roche, 1988:3; World Bank, 1988:107-108). Upland development for permanent-field food crop production is particularly problematic due to ecological and management constraints.

Environmental conditions in upland areas limit food production. Uplands are not generally suited to intensive rice cultivation (Suratman and Guinness, 1977:94; World Bank, 1988:108). Although the level of soil fertility is higher than in grassland areas, soil fertility was low in the humid tropical forests in the uplands of the Outer Islands. Soils are not volcanic and have low nutrient levels (Davis, 1988:151; Ross, 1984:15; Soewardi et al, 1980:60). The dominant red- yellow podzolic and organosol soils are considered marginal, with acidity and toxicity problems (Donner, 1987:91).

Climate is also a constraint. Rainfall is high, resulting in leaching and erosion. Drought often occurs during the dry season, while the transition period between the wet and dry season is another critical point for crop growth because of poor water retention, pest attacks and diseases (IFAD, 1987:12; Soewardi et al, 1980:60; World Bank, 1988:108).

Food production under these conditions requires special technologies or alternative farm models to overcome these constraints. The development of uplands for agricultural land is consequently not possible without the application

of extra agricultural inputs and appropriate soil management (Ross, 1984:16; Soewardi et al, 1980:57).

Poor physical and social infrastucture has also limited the development of the uplands, particularly in the Outer Islands. Farmers in these areas have benefitted less than wetland farmers from improved technology. Based on traditional methods with low capital input, production was largely for subsistence consumption. The key issue in the development of upland areas has been how to increase agricultural productivity and income, while maintaining the ecological balance of the systems.

Although swamps and uplands are marginal, the development of these resources are crucial and they have been designated for agricultural development in Indonesia, particularly through the expansion of the transmigration program. The selection of potential agricultural land in these marginal lands is therefore a major factor in the stability and success of a transmigration settlement.