DEVELOPMENTS IN OFFICIAL CATHOLIC TEACHING ON WORK: 189I-

Having concluded our overview of how the Church historically has understood the nature and meaning of work, we are now able to consider this same question with respect to the contemporaiy Church. We begin our analysis with modern Catholicism.

Until the nineteenth century Roman Catholic teaching on work was mostly a continuation of the tradition established by the Medieval Church. Then, during the 1800’s Catholic social thought in general and its view of work in particular began to change significantly. A. R. Vidler in his classic study A Century of Social Catholicism 1820-1920 demonstrates that in Europe throughout the nineteenth century Catholicism was starting to develop what by modern standards could be called a social awareness. Gradually surfacing in Catholicism during this century was a belief that “it was possible and a matter of moral obligation to improve the social structures as well as bring charitable relief to the victims of industrialism”. (Vidler, p.xii.) According to Vidler, toward the end of the century, and as a specific result of both the Industrial Revolution and the liberal doctrine of laissez faire economics, the expression “social Catholicism” came into use. (Vidler, pp.ix-xii.)

The culmination of this growing awareness and concern for broader social- structural problems was the publication in 1891 of Pope Leo XIH’s encyclical Rerum Novarum (the worker’s charter). It is generally agreed that with this document a new era in Catholic social thought had officially begun.

Remm Novarum is primarily a response by the Church critiquing the social and political liberalism which had spread throughout Europe during the 1800’s. Generally, it is an economically and politically conservative document the main thmst of which is to examine the plight of the working class poor in the light of expanding technology, urbanization and industrialization. Its primary concerns include the affirmation of the right of persons to private property (against socialism) and the limiting of state intervention in working and economic life.

Vidler underscores the fact that part of Leo XIIFs motivation with Re rum Novarum was “to change the inward-looking, citadel mentality that Pius IX had fostered in the Church.” (Vidler, p. 127.) After the Reformation, the Catholic Church had become preoccupied both with its own survival and with reasserting its power and influence in Europe. With Rerum Novarum however, Leo XIII opened the door and redirected Catholic concern in such a way that broader social-ethical questions (which transcend those more preservationist concerns) could emerge.

Further, by broadening Catholics’ horizons to include social questions (which by definition address more than simply the eternal condition of an individual’s “soul”), Catholicism’s overemphasis on the contemplative life (over and against the active) was subtly challenged, even if not completely overcome. The Church’s historic preoccupation with the “soul” (narrowly conceived) was recast so that the problems faced by the person in his or her active social relationships could likewise become important.

This shift is particularly important for the emerging Catholic understanding of work. Work, a central theme in Rerum Novarum, is no longer discussed only as instrumental to personal sustenance and spiritual achievement. Throughout the encyclical, work’s instrumental nature is taken for granted, and its functions in providing sustenance, and in individual spiritual development are simply not the focus. Rather, the advancement this encyclical makes in Catholic social teaching on work is found in the direction and impetus it gives for exploring work’s relational dimensions

and potentialities. (RN, n.27, 34.) The issues addressed in Rerum Novarum examine what the structures of work do to the workers as individuals and to the societies in which they live.

This, it must be emphasized, was a new direction for Catholics. Although Rerum Novarum’s suggestions may seem obvious to those of us living at the dawn of the twenty-first century, for Catholics in the late 1800’s it was a radical departure from the norm. With this encyclical then, work was coming to be more fully understood as an important component in the overall structuring of human social life. Further, work was beginning to be seen as an indispensable factor in shaping a person’s broader social and individual identity.

By implication then, the encyclical may be read as the Catholic Church’s official affirmation of the legitimacy of ordinary life and work. In this respect we see tendencies developing in the Catholic Church which correspond to the relational dimensions of work presented by both Luther and Calvin.^

The next significant development in the Catholic social teaching generally came with the encyclical Quaclragesimo Anno (The Social Order) which was published in 1931 by Pope Pius XI. This encyclical was written to trace the results and benefits of

Rerum Novarum and to further vindicate and explain its teachings. It commented on the economic realities of its day and addressed the problem of translating Rerum Novarum’s teachings into social policy. Interestingly,in this document one detects what appears to be a conscious shift politically and economically. Its tone is decidedly both more radical and “liberal” than the first encyclical’s.^ In the section on the “Emancipation of the Proletariat” for example, it uses explicitly Marxist terminology,

^ Compare for example Rerum Novarum 19 with Luther’s emphasis on work as primarily for the benefit of others, and 45 with Luther’s views on the stations. Also compare 14 with Calvin’s views on inequality and differentiation based on the application of the New Testament “body” concept to the broader society.

^ The social vision in this encyclical is similar to the version of corporatism which was exemplified by M ussolini’s idea in Italy to organise people in blocks similar to the Mediaeval guilds.

concepts and analysis. (QA, 59-62.) Further, it calls for significantly more state intervention than did Rerum Novarum.

With regard to work specifically, this encyclical does not take us much beyond the teachings of Rerum Novarum. This is understandable considering that its emphasis is on economics rather than on work itself. However, one should not fail to see the continued emphasis on the relational aspects of work. The social use of work’s fruits or products remains the central concern of this encyclical. Quaclragesimo Anno then, although not a commentary on work itself, is nonetheless an attempt to suggest how the view of work offered in Rerum Novarum should be implemented in society.

Next, toward the end of the Second World War, we find a flourishing of creative explorations in Catholic social theory. We are not here concerned with an encyclical or Papal pronouncement, but rather with certain undercurrents or movements which were taking place elsewhere within the Catholic Church.

Among these movements were the developments in theological reflection which led to the emergence of genitive theologies. “Theologies of secular realities” and hence “theologies of work” were being explored by several continental Catholic thinkers. Particularly important was M.-D. Chenu. Chenu’s reapplication of the Thomist tradition to the problem of work’s nature and meaning introduced into Catholicism a new paradigm for tliinking theologically about work. Although by late twentieth century standards his conclusions are probably both too optimistic concerning what we can expect humans to achieve through their work, and too environmentally unfriendly. Chenu’s new model, a theology of work, was nevertheless ground-breaking and its significance and value therefore should not be underrated.

Those working on theologies of work however, were not the only ones in Catholicism in the middle of the century exploring the meaning and role of work in the life of the individual and society. Other initiatives also shaped Catholicism’s emerging understanding of work. There were for example, the Worker Priest movement in France (Mission de France), the Little Sisters / Little Brothers of Jesus movement. Jeunesse

Ouviere Cln'etienne and Opus Dei.^

Importantly, Catholics not directly a part of either the developments in genitive theologies or these experimental lifestyle movements began to consider the contributions from these trends. By 1960 in Great Britain a symposium specifically on work had been held which involved several prominent English Catholic scholars and “working” persons. Several participants produced essays which were published in a book edited by John Todd called Work: Christian Thought and Practice. The content of the book suggests how influential each of the above mentioned developments had become. The English participants had come to discuss work using the very language and categories which these initiatives had established. For example, the closing section of the book (which functions as a summary and call for further reflection) adopts the genitive “theology of work” motif. It uses this motif rather than the “vocation” model standardized by the Reformers and still in use by most Protestants. Also, the suggestions in this section, particularly in the chapter by Herbert McCabe O.P., in many ways reflect those presented first by Chenu. McCabe uses similar categories and terminology, and indicates that he is working with a Thomist framework (similar* to that used by Chenu).

The important observation from these trends is that the Catholic Church finally had come up with a motif, or model, with which to develop its own reflections specifically on the nature and meaning of work. Further, the broader impact of this model can be seen from the fact that its influence has now spread even beyond its originally Catholic context. As a methodology it has recently been adopted for Protestant theological reflections on work. Volf for example, chooses the theology of work motif rather than the vocational model.

The currents and trends to which we have been referring were certainly among those which lead to, and heavily influenced the Catholic Church as it moved into Vatican II. This series of meetings was to make official a host of developments in

^ Todd, pp. 113-119., and lllanes. On the Theology of Work. (1967). ^ Todd, pp.211-221.

theology, ecclesiology and social thought which were already underway within the Church. The topic of work, as we have seen, was integral and closely tied to these broader developments. Based on work’s prominence in previous encyclicals and due particularly to the post war emphasis it received, it can be argued that the theological reflection on work was one of the underlying (if not initially expressed) concerns leading to Vatican II’s re-shaping of modern Catholicism.

For our purposes, when referring to the Vatican II period we will look only at the 1961 encyclical Mater et Magistra by Pope John XXIII and the Vatican II document

Gaudium et Spes. These are not the only Vatican II period documents central to the continued story of developing Catholic social thought, but they ai*e the particularly relevant ones with reference to work.^

Mater et Magistra aims at being a further explication of Rerum Novarum as it attempts to reevaluate the “social problem” in the light of Christian teaching. “Justice”, closely linked with “equity”, between the different branches in the economy is the new aspect of the social question it introduces. The need for just relationships between such branches as agriculture, public services, and taxation are highlighted. Interestingly, agriculture becomes a key issue thioughout the document.^

Although in the tradition of Rerum Novarum, Mater et Magistra moves even further away in its social and political outlook from Rerum Novarum. Pope John XXIII argues specifically for state intervention in economic planning and positively affirms our evolution to a welfare state. (MM, 20.)

We also find introduced in this encyclical however, a new ai'ea for consideration. In line with the ethos of Vatican II, we find more prominence placed on the need for Christian education, and a higher priority given to lay persons and lay ministry in the

^ Another important encyclical of this period, but not one which contributes significantly beyond those we are considering to the question of work is Pope Paul VPs encyclical of 1967, Populorum Progressio.

^ Agriculture became important because the massive pressure placed on Vatican II by third- world Bishops from Africa, Asia and Latin America.

Church. Therefore, it is not surprising that the specific topic of work (the universal activity of the laity) would become prominent in the document. Noteworthy, is that the understanding of work presented in Mater et Magistra closely corresponds with the idea of the priority of the human (labor) over the material (capital) which later becomes the foundation for the theology of work found in Laborem Exercens. Two quotes suffice to illustrate this emerging understanding of the nature of work.

First, work “must be regarded not merely as a commodity, but as a specifically human activity. In the majority of cases a man’s work is his sole means of livelihood. Its remuneration, therefore, cannot be made to depend on the state of the m arket.”(MM, 18.) Second, it is suggested that “work, which is the immediate expression of a human personality, must always be rated higher than the possession of external goods which of their very nature are merely instrumental.” {MM, 107.) Notice here the defining characteristics of work. It is a “specifically human activity”, and it is an “immediate expression of a human personality”. Other aspects which might contribute to work’s essential nature are minimized. Its nature as a commodity is so depicted that it is in effect denied or at best presented to be a negative. Further, the work act is argued to have priority over that which work produces. The implication is that the act of working is what is important rather than its product.

Four years after Mater et Magistra another document reflecting further developments in Catholic social thought was published; this was Gaudium et Spes, It was the product of Vatican II’s fai* ranging attempts to reform the Church and reflects an unprecedented openness to non-Catholics, even more emphasis on lay activity, and a marked return to Biblical theology as the basis for Church practice. Its themes include an emphasis on human dignity as the theological basis for social ethics, and an emphasis on humanity’s general purpose to advance the works of God in creation.

Not surprisingly, the topic of work also surfaces several times in this document. Two points demonstrate its continuity with the developing Catholic social thought with respect to work. First, as with Chenu, McCabe and the revised Thomist tradition which

they represent (with the focus on teleology), the discussions of human purpose in

Gaudium et Spes securely place work constitutionally (or ontologically) within God’s desired plans for humanity. Here work’s importance goes far beyond its instrumental function for survival or spiritual advancement. {GS, 20, 40.) Strategically, by highlighting that human labor was intended by God as part of humanity’s purpose, work was endowed with its own value and worth.

Our second point however, is that by so emphasizing work’s relational aspects (both social-structural and existential), the specifically “human” dimensions of work begin to overshadow its other instrumental and ontological aspects. {GS, 9, 33, 34, 35.) This results in further embedding into Catholic social tradition the concept of the priority of the acts of labor over its products or its material consequences or benefits. A quote toward the end of the document is telling on this point. “Human labour, employed in the production and exchange of goods and in supplying economic services, is the chief element in economic life - all else is instmmental.” {GS, 67.)

La b o r e m Ex e r c e n s

The next and final development in Catholic social thought which concerns us is the 1981 publication by Pope John Paul II of the encyclical Laborem Exercens (On Human Work).^ With this document official Catholic social teaching reaches its culmination with respect to work. Thus, we here turn our attention to a more careful evaluation of it.^

^ Laborem Exercens (1981), in Baum, The Priority of Labor, pp.95-152. (1982.) We should mention here that in this text Baum offers a quite interesting socialist reading o f this encyclical. However, as our argument below will show, such a reading is not ultimately sustainable.

Also, between the early period in theology of work development (represented by Chenu and then McCabe), and the publication of Laborem Exercens. there was in Catholicism outside of the Vatican additional probing for possibilities and further exploration into the theological basis for understandings of work. Part of this search, focusing on the questions of work’s relation to eternal salvation and the relationship between nature and grace can be traced in: Reck, (1964), pp.228-39. See also for a more developed alternative approach at a Catholic theology of work: Davies, (1968), pp.93-116. ^ Of course. Pope John Paul II has published several social encyclicals subsequent to

Simply described, Laborem Exercens is another in the line of papal encyclicals outlining the social teaching of the Catholic Church, or, addressing the “social question”. It was occasioned by the ninetieth anniversary of Pope Leo XIII’s publication of the first social encyclical Rerum Novarum.

Laborem exercens however, is quite unique compared to other encyclicals. It is both a highly theological document, yet it also has a quite narrow focus. While other encyclicals range broadly over a host of social issues, Laborem Exercens focuses primai'ily on one aspect of the social question, that of human work. As Pope John Paul II explains, “I wish to devote this document to human work, and even more, to man in the vast context of the reality of work.” {LE, 1.) For Pope John Paul II it is important to focus this letter, “perhaps more than has been done before”, on human work when dealing with the social question, for human work is the “key, probably the essential key, to the whole social question”. {LE, 3.) Why so?

And if the solution - or rather the gradual solution - of the social question, which keeps coming up and becomes ever more complex, must be sought in the direction of ‘making life more human,’ then the key, namely human work, acquires fundamental and decisive importance. {LE, 3.)

Now this peculiar elevation of one aspect of the social question, (work) to the level of prime importance is not intended to be seen as incongruous with the developing trajectory of the tradition as found in the previous encyclicals. Pope John Paul II is clear that this encyclical is “not intended to follow a different line, but rather to be in organic connection with the whole tradition of this teaching and activity.” {LE,2.)

Indeed, he points out, similar to what we have already shown in our survey, that thioughout the

Church’s teaching in the sphere of the complex and many-sided social question - the question of human work naturally appeals many times.