THE DIAGNOSTIC PROCESS
DIAGNOSTIC MODELS
Diagnosis is based on an understanding of how an organization functions. OD practi-tioners use diagnostic models to assess organizations.23In a study of 245 OD practi-tioners, Burke, Clark, and Koopman found that 70 percent used a model to help diagnose organizations.24One method of diagnosis (discussed earlier in Chapter 2) is the system approach. Diagnostic models play a critical role in an organization development program.
The trend now is to ask employees to rate the organization’s progress on corporate change, empowerment, and similar issues. Each of the various diagnostic models may be used to analyze the structure, culture, and behavior of the organization. Several diagnostic models will be examined briefly in this section.
The Analytical Model
The analytical model, sometimes referred to as the difference-integration model, stresses the importance of a sound analytical diagnosis as the basis for planned change in orga-nizations.25The model was developed to study and understand interdepartmental is-sues by conducting a careful diagnosis of the organization’s problem areas. Most organizations are composed of departments or divisions; that is, the organization is made up of differentiated functions or units that must be integrated into a unified effort if the organization is to be effective. The tasks the units work on can be examined in respect to four characteristics of the organization’s environment: (1) the degree of departmen-tal structure, (2) the time orientation of members, (3) the interpersonal orientation of members toward others, and (4) organization members’ orientation toward goals.
One example of how this model can be used is shown in Table 5.1, which presents the results of a survey of four departments of a typical company. The data show that the finance and research departments are fairly wide apart in how their members view time, orientation toward others, and goals. Despite these differences, the two departments must work together.The analytical model may make it possible for the two departments to understand why they have differences and to develop ways to work better together.
The data on these four characteristics provide a basis for structural or cultural changes in the department. When the groups in an organization are highly differentiated, coop-eration between them is difficult, and it may be necessary to design methods for achiev-ing integration.
The Emergent-Group Behavior Model
The emergent-group behavior model is based primarily on the work of George Homans and provides a conceptual scheme for analyzing behavior in work groups, particularly the interdependence of groups.26According to this diagnostic model, a complex pattern of behavior consisting of activities, interactions, sentiments, and norms develops from the
TABLE 5.1 Orientation of Functional Departments
Degree of Members’ Members’ Members’
Organization Departmental Orientation Orientation Goal
Units Structure toward Time toward Others Orientation
Finance High Short Controlling Investment
Research Low Long Permissive Science
Marketing Medium Short Permissive Market
Production High Short Directive Product
ISBN: 0-536-63893-4
An Experiential Approach to Organization Development, Seventh Edition, by Donald R. Brown and Don Harvey.
Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
set of behaviors and relationships required to perform the work of the group. Another complex set of behaviors emerges in addition to those that are required, such as social activity. These behaviors may or may not assist the group members in the performance of their duties. The emergent-group behavior model helps in understanding how teams operate. This model gathers observations and information on these four characteristics and uses them to diagnose problems among or within teams.
The Management Practitioner Model
In a study of over 900 practitioner cases, Terry Armstrong and Walter Wheatley devel-oped a diagnostic model that analyzes six basic factors:27
Basic planning.Do they have a mission, vision, and goals?
General business practices.Do they have appropriate management systems?
Finance.Are they operating with timely, accurate financial data, and plans?
Advertising and promotion.Are they aware of the link between advertising and sales?
Market research.Are they aware of their competitors’ strategies and policies and their customers’ needs?
Personnel.Do they have appropriate systems for recruiting, training, and retain-ing human resources?
Armstrong and Wheatley suggest that it is possible to ask a few basic questions in each area to get an indication of where the client’s problems may be located.
The Sociotechnical Systems Model
The sociotechnical systems model, developed from the work of Eric Trist and others at the Tavistock Institute, analyzes the organization as a sociotechnical system interacting with its external environment.28According to Trist and his colleagues, every organization comprises a social system consisting of the network of interpersonal relationships and a technological system consisting of the task, activities, and tools used to accomplish the organization’s purpose. These two systems—the social system and the technological system—are interrelated and interdependent. The diagnosis determines how they in-terrelate, with emphasis on the feedback or lack of feedback between the various sub-systems.
Cause Maps and Social Network Analysis Model
Reed E. Nelson and K. Michael Mathews have proposed the use of cause maps and so-cial network analysis in diagnosis.29Cause maps are mathematical representations of per-ceived causal relationships among variables. First, a list of the most important factors (such as quantity, speed, frequency, quality, and morale) is generated through group dis-cussion. Then participants are asked to identify the causal relationships among the vari-ables. The results are incorporated into a matrix of relationships.
The social network analysis model is based upon a mathematical representation of the relations between individuals or groups (such as a marketing department). Analy-sis of the causal makeup of the organization and the specific interdepartmental rela-tionships provides knowledge about important interdependencies.
The Force-Field Analysis Model
The force-field analysis model, originated by Kurt Lewin, is a general-purpose diagnos-tic technique.30This model views organizational behavior not as a static pattern but as a dynamic balance of forces working in opposite directions. In any organizational situa-tion, there are forces that push for change and forces that hinder change. The forces act-ing to keep the organization stable are called restrainact-ing forces; they put pressure on the organization not to change. Opposite forces, called driving forces, put pressure on the organization to change. If the forces for change and the forces against change are equal, the result is equilibrium and the organization remains stable, as shown in Figure 5.4.
Lewin termed this state quasi-stationary equilibrium. This technique assumes that at any given moment an organization is in a state of equilibrium; put differently, it is balanced.
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Restraining
Change takes place when there is an imbalance between the two types forces and continues until the opposing forces are brought back into equilibrium. The imbalance can be planned, and specifically brought about, by increasing the strength of some of the forces, by adding a new force, by decreasing the strength of some of the forces, or by a combination of these methods. An example of how force-field analysis can be used may be helpful. The general manager of a hospital employing 300 workers and her immedi-ate subordinimmedi-ates identified the 6 percent daily absentee rimmedi-ate as an area of concern. They determined that a 3 percent absentee rate would be much more acceptable. In other words, they found a “performance gap.” After going over the survey results with the OD practitioner, it was decided to use force-field analysis to gain an improved diagno-sis of this problem. In a brainstorming session, the work team listed all of the forces tending to restrain and increase absenteeism (see Figure 5.5).
The managers made the length of the arrows proportionate to the strength of the forces.They had a choice of several strategies to reduce the performance gap.They could decrease the strength of the restraining forces, increase the strength of the driving forces, or a combination of both. Generally, if the forces that put pressure on people (such as fear of losing their job) are increased, the tension within the system will also increase, possibly bringing about stronger resistance and unpredictable behavior. It is often bet-ter to increase forces that do not put pressure on people (for instance, a promotion pol-icy that is more closely tied to an employee’s absentee rate), to reduce restraining forces, or to add new driving forces.
Present
FORCES TENDING TO RESTRAIN (INCREASE) ABSENTEE RATE
FORCES TENDING TO IMPROVE (DECREASE) ABSENTEE RATE Pay
FIGURE 5.5 Example of the Use of Force-field Analysis
ISBN: 0-536-63893-4
An Experiential Approach to Organization Development, Seventh Edition, by Donald R. Brown and Don Harvey.
Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.