For modern computers to manipulate sound, they first have to convert it to a digital format. The sound samples can then be processed, transmitted, and converted back to analog format, where they can finally be received by the human ear.
Digitization of sound began in earnest in the early 1960s. Like much of our early computer
technology, credit for development lies with AT&T, which at that time had a regulated monopoly on long-distance service in the United States. In 1962, AT&T established the first commercial digital telephone link, a T1 interoffice trunk in Chicago.
In the short space of thirty years, we have seen the long-distance network in the United States convert almost entirely from analog to digital transmission. Virtually all new switching equipment installed by telephone companies today is digital. But analog switching is still found in older installations and in the smaller PBX and key systems installed in businesses. Of course, the final subscriber loop between the telephone company and the end user is still persistently analog. Digital audio is now coming of age in the highly visible consumer electronics arena as well. The digital compact disk has nearly completed its displacement of analog LP records. It remains to be seen whether digital audio tape will do the same thing to analog cassette tape, but it seems likely that some day most recorded music will be distributed in digital format.
Fundamentals
While this book cannot give a complete course in digital signal processing, it certainly has room to cover a few basic concepts involved in digital sound. Figure 10.1 shows a typical audio waveform as it might be displayed on an oscilloscope. The X axis in this diagram represents time. The Y axis represents a voltage measured at an input device, typically a microphone. The microphone attempts to faithfully reproduce changes in air pressure caused by sound waves traveling through it.
dynamic range of our hearing is so wide that we have to employ a logarithmic scale of measurement, the decibel, to reasonably accommodate it. This presents a unique set of requirements for
digitization.
A waveform like the shown in Figure 10.1 is typical of audio sample. It isn’t a nice, clean sine wave that has a regular period and can be described as a simple mathematical function. Instead, it is a combination of various frequencies at different amplitudes and phases. When combined, we see something that looks fairly irregular and not easy to characterize.
Figure 10.1 A typical audio waveform.
This particular “snapshot” shows about 5 milliseconds (ms) of output. Notice that the largest
recognizable components of the waveform appear to have a period of roughly two milliseconds. This corresponds to a frequency of about 500Hz, a fairly characteristic frequency found in speech or music.
The first step in working with digital audio is “sampling.” Sampling consists of taking measurements of the input signal at regular times, converting them to an appropriate scale, and storing them. Figure 10.2 shows the same waveform sampled at an 8KHz rate. This means that 8,000 times per second a measurement is taken of the voltage level of the input signal. The measurement points are marked with an “x” on the waveform.
Figure 10.2 A typical audio waveform being sampled at 8KHz.
In most computer systems, this first step of digitization is done with an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The ADC takes a given voltage and scales it to an appropriate digital measurement. An eight-bit ADC, for example, might have a “full scale” input voltage of 500 millivolts (mv)—it would output an eight-bit value of 255 if the input voltage were 500mv and zero if the input voltage were
zero. A voltage between these values would be scaled to fit in the linear range of zero to 255. Since audio signals are AC in natured, the ranges are usually adjusted so that a zero voltage signal falls in the middle of the range. For the previous example, the range would be adjusted to between - 250mv and +250mv. Outputs from the eight-bit ADC would range from -128 to +127.
The stored sample points then represent a series of voltages that were measured at the input of the ADC. Figure 10.3 shows the representation of those voltages overlaid with the input AC signal. Note that since the sample points in this case are occurring many times more frequently than the period of the waveform, the digital samples themselves trace the analog signal very accurately.
Figure 10.3 Sample voltages overlaid with the input AC signal
Now that the sound has been digitized, it can be stored via computer using any number of
technologies, ranging from fast storage, such as main processor RAM, to off-line slow storage on magnetic tape. The actual speed of the storage medium is relatively unimportant with digital sound, since the bandwidth needed to accurately store the sound is relatively slow compared to most digital media.
Eventually, the sound needs to be played back. This is done via another electronic component that is the converse of the ADC: the digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The DAC is responsible for taking a digital value and converting it to a corresponding analog signal. To be effective, the conversion process needs to be the mirror image of that performed when converting the analog signal to digital. While the exact voltages produced at the output of the DAC do not need to be identical to those seen at the input, they do need to be proportional to one another so that one waveform corresponds to the other. In addition, the samples need to be output at exactly the same rate that they were read in. Any deviation here will cause the output frequencies to be shifted up or down from the input, generally not a good thing.
Figure 10.4 shows the output of the DAC when given the same set of samples produced in Figure 10.2. At first glance, it seems that this is a radically different waveform. All the nice, smooth shapes shown in the earlier figures are gone, replaced by this stair-step, rectangular, artificial-looking creation.
Figure 10.4 DAC output
Fortunately, Figure 10.4 is not that far removed from Figure 10.1. Mathematically, the sharp jumps that occur when we move from sample to sample represent high-frequency components in the output signal. These can (and must) be eliminated from the signal by means of a low-pass filter that lies between the output of the DAC and the final amplification stage of the audio output.
A low-pass filter is a network of electrical components designed to let frequencies below a certain value pass through it unhindered, while attenuating frequencies above that point. An ideal low-pass filter used with the samples shown here would completely stop any frequency above 4KHz and let frequencies below 4KHz pass through with no attenuation.
In practice, low-pass filters don’t work perfectly, but even a low-budget filter can take Figure 10.4 and create a nearly indistinguishable copy of Figure 10.1. Without the filter, the sound sample will still be intelligible, but it will be filled with distracting high-frequency “noise” that is part of the reproduction process.
Figure 10.5 shows the same figure when the sampling rate has been stepped up to a much higher rate. This increase in sampling rate clearly does a more accurate job of reproducing the signal. The next section discusses how variations in these parameters affect the output signal.
Figure 10.5 Sampling at a much higher rate.
Sampling Variables
When an audio waveform is sampled, two important variables affect the quality of the reproduction: the sample rate and the sample resolution. Both are important factors, but they play different roles in determining the level of distortion produced when a sample is played back.
The sample resolution is simply a measure of how accurately the digital sample can measure the voltage it is recording. When the input range is -500mv to +500mv, for example, an eight-bit ADC can resolve the input signal down to about 4mv. So an input signal of 2mv will either get rounded up to 4mv or down to 0mv. This is called a quantization error.
Figure 10.6 shows the results of quantization error when sampling a waveform. In some cases the sample point has a larger magnitude than the audio signal, but in other places it has less. When the digitized signal is played back through a DAC, the output waveform will closely track the sample points, resulting in a certain amount of distortion.
Figure 10.6 Quantization error when sampling a waveform
It might seem that eight bits should be enough to accurately record audio data, but this may not be the case because of the large dynamic range of audio the human ear can detect. If our 500mv range example were used, we might find that our input signal magnitudes range from 1mv to 500mv in a single recording session. The crash of drums in an orchestra could push the ADC to its limits, while a delicate violin solo may never go outside 5mv. If the minimum digital resolution is only 5mv, a very noticeable level of distortion will be introduced during this part of a recording session.
The sampling rate plays a different role in determining the quality of digital sound reproduction. One classic law in digital signal processing was published by Harry Nyquist in 1993. He determined that to accurately reproduce a signal of frequency f, the sampling rate has to be greater than 2*f. This is commonly called the Nyquist Rate.
The audio signal in Figure 10.7 is being measured at a considerably slower rate than that shown in the previous examples, with noticeably negative consequences. At several places in the waveform it is not even sampled a single time during an excursion above or below the center line.
Figure 10.7 A slower sampling rate.
Figure 10.8 shows the waveform we could expect after playing back the digitized samples stored from Figure 10.7. Clearly, after the digitized output is filtered, the resulting waveform differs quite a bit from that shown in the previous figure. What has happened is that the high-frequency
components of the waveform have been lost by the slower sampling rate, letting only the low- frequency parts of the sample through.
Figure 10.8 The waveform after playing back digitized samples.
The human ear hears sound up to 20KHz, which implies that we need to sample audio to 40KHz or better to achieve good reproduction. In fact, the sampling rate used for digital reproduction of music via compact disk or digital audio tape is 44KHz, using sixteen-bit samples. The quality of sound achieved at this sampling rate is generally acknowledged to be superior.
This does not mean that all digital recordings have to be done at 44KHz rates. Virtually every digital phone system in the world uses an 8KHz sampling rate to record human speech, with generally good results. This means that the phone system is unable to pass any signal with a frequency of 4KHz or higher. This clearly does not render the system useless—millions of long-distance calls over digital lines are made every day. The average speech signal is composed of many different frequencies, and even if everything above 4KHz is discarded, most of the speech energy still makes it through the system. Our ears detect this loss as a lower-fidelity signal, but they still understand it quite well. The ultimate test of all this is how the audio output sounds to our ears. It is difficult to quantify a “quality of sound” measurement is strictly mathematical terms, so when discussing audio output, it is always best to temper judgments with true listener trials.
PC-Based Sound
Some exotic work in digital signal processing has been going on for years, but it usually involved expensive special-purpose peripherals far out of reach of the average computer installation.
Early desktop computers did not really push the state of the art in sound reproduction. Original IBM and Apple computers both had built-in speakers as standard equipment, but they gave the
programmer only a single bit with which to control the speaker. This meant the speaker could generally be used only to emit beeps and buzzes, not true digitized sound.
In the early 1980s, however, many computer manufacturers saw that a true digitized sound capability could be added to their computers at a relatively low cost. Apple was the most prominent
manufacturer, adding an eight-bit DAC to the Macintosh, which opened the door to the use of true digitized audio.
Most desktop computers today are IBM compatible ISA computers based on Intel’s 80x86 CPU chips. Unfortunately for sound enthusiasts, IBM has not yet elected to add sound capability to the PC, but third-party solutions are relatively inexpensive. The sound samples used in this book have been created and manipulated using the Sound Blaster card, manufactured by Creative Labs. But several other cards are on the market that can play digitized sound samples, and any of these can be used, provided file-format conversion utilities exist.
The next generation of digitized sound on the desktop is now here. Many of today’s consumer machines can digitize and playback 44 KHz sixteen-bit CD-quality sound data. Only a few years ago, this capability seemed a bit unusual. The exotic black cube from NeXT Computer seemed to