Digital technology and its link to reading and writing

Literature seems to agree that learners are being exposed to a number of technological devices and technology in the classroom has become less expensive

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and easier to use (Lim, Pellett and Pellet, 2009). A number of researchers like Bergen (2000) also hold the view that advancements in technology can bring exciting learning opportunities for students. As the previous section has shown learning in the 21st _{Century has become ‘technologically oriented’ and schools} need to catch up with technology in order to ensure that they are helping their students prepare themselves to be successful (Morgan, 2011).

The same is argued by Barone and Wright (2009) who believe that it is imperative that students are prepared for the new digital literacies. On top of this, Morgan (2011) states that this can be achieved by allowing students to use technological devices such as handheld computers within the classroom setting. Through this manner students will be transferring their knowledge and skills of using technology in the classroom context or learning purposes.

Various classrooms around the world are in fact making use of different types of technological devices and teachers are also using wireless technological devices in their teaching with the aim of improving learning (Kim, Mims and Holmes, 2005). Churchill and Churchill (2008) provide a list of technological devices which they consider to be ‘wireless technological devices’ which can be used within the classroom context. They include; smart phones, iPods, personal digital assistants and cameras; all of which Morgan (2011) argues are affordable, portable and practical for classroom use.

To date Maltese students have not made regular use of any of the technological devices listed by Churchill and Churchill (2008). As the last section of this chapter will show however all Maltese classrooms are equipped with interactive whiteboards and projectors. Every Maltese primary classroom also has a minimum number of four computers in each class, one of which is connected to a printer. Furthermore all primary school teachers, kindergarten assistants and learning support assistants in state schools were given a new laptop at some point throughout the year of 2016.

A common feature which technological devices have is the use of ‘multimedia’. Morgan (2011) refers to multimedia tools as those which provide audio, video and

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Internet access and argues that modern technological devices are allowing text to be presented alongside audio, visual and interactive tools. A number of researchers have argued that students enjoy using technology in the classroom due to its multimedia presentation (Biro, 2011; Jewitt, 2002) whilst others regard the use of multimedia as a major advantage of technology use (Yanez and Coyle, 2010; Slay et al., 2008).

Throughout Slay et al.’s (2008) study, practitioners incorporated various types of multimedia sources in their teaching such as; online sources, websites, presentations and static images. Students who were interviewed in Slay et al.’s study (2008) provided examples how they believed multimedia helped them learn more:

Teacher A revealed that several of her Grade 6 learners are not able to read, but when the whole class was going through the online story books she said: ‘I could see that

they were trying to read along with the story. And afterwards when I tested them to see if they could read a line at least, I could see that they had improved’ (p.1334).

Yanez and Coyle (2010) agree that students like the visual and audio aspect of tablets and the touch screen along with the multimedia presentation. This was shown through a number of studies including a small-scale study carried out in an English language classroom in Spain (Yanez and Coyle, 2010) where eight year old students were asked about the ways in which they and their teacher used interactive whiteboards. Common themes in the children’s responses were categorised into four main categories:

1. The ‘game-like’ element of the IWB

2. The multi-sensorial properties and multimodal activities of the IWB as an aid to facilitate comprehension and learning

3. The children’s desire to use the IWB more often

4. The children’s awareness of technological problems (p.448).

The multimedia concept of the interactive whiteboard was a common theme for students who also explained that they considered the interactive whiteboard to

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enhance learning through fun whilst making lessons more enjoyable. These feelings were expressed through the children’s direct quotes “I like it because we

can play lots of games and we can learn at the same time”, “I like the multiplication games because I can learn the times tables very easily... if we did not have the IWB it would be boring and harder to learn” “And you can’t do a lot of games on a book like that (text book)... you can do it interactive (referring to the IWB) (p.448).

Lim-Fong and Robins (2010) also elaborated on multimedia features in their study and they refered to the connection between handheld devices and video games stating that students who are shy to face the classroom are now volunteering to use technology and showcase their understanding. According to Lim-Fong and Robins (2010) through the use of technological devices the students feel less discouraged when they make a mistake and surmise that ‘this confidence may come from experience with computer and video games that requires them to try again and again until they get it right’ (p.230).

In a study on filmmaking Theodosakis (2001) stated that digital video technology, which can be presented through different modes, is an important tool which stimulates students’ learning and helps learners acquire new skills such as critical thinking, decision making, communication and research skills. Lim et al. (2009) support this view and argue that through video integration in the classroom learners learn to collaborate and acquire skills such as problem solving and knowledge building. This shows that multimedia functions are extremely popular with students and in turn students are benefiting through its use.

This multimodality can be considered as a prime advantage because it caters for different learning styles (Yanez and Coyle, 2010). Furthermore; ‘integrating elements of text, graphics, sound, video, and the capability of user to physically interact with the objects on the screen, has offered an innovative approach to teaching and learning interactively’ (Lim-Fong and Robins, 2010, p.226). Visual images are also claimed to stimulate children’s memory (Livingstone, 2009; Burden, 2002; Kress, 1998).

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As Kress (1998) argues; ‘the exponential expansion of the potentials of electronic technologies will entrench visual modes of communication as a rival to language in many domains of public life’ (p.55). This concept was also explored by Burden (2002) when he stated that students remember more when they visualise images. This shows that multimedia sources such as video-clips and presentations also help students to understand concepts ‘at a deeper level’ (Lim-Fong and Robins, 2010, p.230). Morgan’s (2011) study similarly argues that multimedia also helps students learn vocabulary since the technology can provide images along with definition of new words, thus making it more practical and easy for young students to learn new words in class.

Lim-Fong and Robins (2010) argue that Livingstone teachers have found that using multimedia such as video clips to extend ideas can increase students’ attention span and comprehension because students can make a connection to the material. The use of multimedia has also proven to increase student engagement and the teachers interviewed in Lim-Fong and Robins’ (2010) study also explained that they have observed more on-task behaviour as students attend to instructions better. Studies have found that visual representation and multimedia motivate students to learn and focus more and can be considered as a way which improves student learning (Fiorentino, 2004).

In spite of this, this ideology has been challenged with some studies tackling the disadvantages which multimedia technological resources might entail. Twiner (2010) for example refers to the ‘dangers of an assumption that technology will drive the lesson rather than the learning’ (p.43). This argument is further consolidated by Cutrim Schmid’s (2008) belief that ‘since the technology allows a seamless access to multimedia resources, there is a potential danger of using the technology mainly to give lessons a crisp pace, instead of focusing on making the best pedagogical use of these resources’ (p.1566) Smith, Higgins, Wall and Miller (2005) also share their concern that the ‘novelty value’ of technological devices might ‘wear off’ as students become familiar to the multimedia features of electronic devices.

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Morgan (2011) has also presented a number of disadvantages in relation to multimedia arguing that 21st Century learners still need to interact with the teacher when using technology and therefore the use of multimedia on its own would not be successful without constant human interaction input. He later adjusted this view on the use of Skype for projects in schools arguing that a student who was struggling with the reading of a book kept trying to read it because he knew, and had spoken to the author through the Skype conversation (Morgan, 2013). Furthermore it was also noted that Skype conversations with authors motivated the students to read more challenging books.

The literature seems to present a mixed picture about the use of multimedia in class in relation to reading and writing. A number of scholars (Lim-Fong and Robins, 2010; Theodosakis, 2001) believe that multimedia leads to positive attributes and motivates students to focus more on their work. This Literature Review has shown however that a number of researchers do not support such a positive view and criticise multimedia for distracting the pupils (Baya’a and Daher, 2009).

Although this section focused on the use of interactive whiteboards and tablets since these are mainly used in Malta, Lacina (2008) and Patten and Craig (2007) have focused their research on the effects of iPods in classrooms. Through Lacina’s (2008) study it was shown that students enjoyed using iPods as they found them to be motivating and engaging. Patten and Craig’s (2007) findings were very similar to those presented by Lacina (2008) since the study showed that ‘the iPod provides a tool for engagement’ (p.74). In spite of this finding Patten and Craig (2007) have also argued that their research showed that in itself the iPod did not lead to higher test scores.

Further international research has focused on other handheld technological devices which hold multimedia features and are used in the classroom context. Baya and Daher (2009) for example conducted an experiment and investigated the use of mobile phones in a classroom setting to teach mathematics arguing that although the use of technology and the features of multimedia helped students with their learning they also have the potential to distract students. This was considered as one of the main drawbacks of using handheld multimedia devices.

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This section has further demonstrated that constructions of literacy are changing because of digital technology. Although the literature outlined so far agrees on this, there is lack of research which seeks to understand what reading and writing actually are now. However before addressing the research question; ‘what is reading and writing in the digital age?’ it is important to see what the literature has said about the advantages and disadvantages of using technology in the classroom.

2.7 Reported advantages and disadvantages of using technology in the