Dimensions of Coding

Based on the work of Schreier (2012), a focus on consistency motivated the establishment of coding frames prior to the process of analysis. The use of Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS), ATLAS.ti was deployed to allow the coding process to be organized systematically for convenience of storing and retrieval. Initial coding involved highlighting concepts relevant to the theoretical framework highlighted in Chapter 1. However, since the QCA approach is data-driven, the pre-determined frames were further refined as the coding process continued, maintaining reference to the theoretical framework, literature and research questions that were recommended in this study. Emergent codes were also integrated into the totality of the coding frames. During each coding session, perceptions of the researcher were confirmed and enhanced through the establishing of coding dimensions to add to the researcher’s breadth of knowledge and meaning manifest. The coding process sought consistency through specific dimensions that seek to deliberate each research question with more depth. As such, several levels of hierarchy was established and created subcategories of the dimension studied (McLelland et al, 2008). The following are the coding frames that were developed during the process of coding for each research question posed for this study.

The first dimensional coding is based on RQ1 that sought to look into the discursive representations of the hijab in Malaysian media. Thus, elements relatable to the Uses and Gratifications Theory as discussed in Chapter 1 are highlighted in the frames to examine into their media use habits and attitudes towards the media in achieving their gratifications in using the media.

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Figure 4.1: Coding frames based on Uses and Gratifications model

Uses and Gratifications Research (Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1973) or U&G is still relevant to the blooming media today. Although its inception was in the 1970s where mass media was unilateral, both conventional and new media content rely on the decision-making process of the media users, which in turn is a cyclical process that creates the supply and demand chain of information. Significantly different from Albert Bandura’s decisions on the “Bobo Doll” experiment and Social Learning Theory that individuals tend to model behavior as an “effect” from observing others (Oppong, 2014), U&G recognizes the active media consumer from the input of content and its consequences, where the media consumer is considered an active seeker of more information. At present, various forms of media compete and the consumers are at liberty to choose the platforms that satisfy their needs, interests and intelligence that in turn create self-awareness.

Hence the coding frames that were developed for Dimension 1 are in the interests of audiences and the development of personal tastes and attitudes whilst being attuned to media exposure. The top hierarchy in this dimension looks at how a media consumer would be motivated to accept the ideas of the hijab. One would firstly see how the practice would benefit them; particularly on their self-worth, followed by how they would be perceived in the eyes of others in their process of socialization. Concurrently

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the exercise of information-seeking would be under way so that the media user would be able to further understand the phenomenon through appropriate references and expand their worldview of the female modesty movement at present with the elements of globalization available in the content, as can be seen in the second tier. Also in the second tier is where status and the media consumer’s parasocial relations with celebrities and prominent figures that also use the hijab contributes to their self-worth, hence validating their value in the eyes of the beholder. In addition, being exposed and included part of a community of hijabis in the socialization of the media consumer creates a sense of belonging, even though cultural adaptations to Malaysian multiculturalism created hybrids of hijabis in the Malaysian public sphere

Next, the second dimension of coding frame is based on RQ2 that sought to understand the negotiation of hijab representations of media audiences in their use of Malaysian media. Elements of the postfeminist Double Bind Theory is explored, where it discusses the dilemma of women in pursuing personal principles yet conforming to current trends, and in doing so unveils their perceptions on the phenomenon.

Figure 4.2: Coding frames based Postfeminist Double Bind Theory

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The Double Bind asserts that a woman’s feelings and emotions are equally dominant in selecting areas that are both desirable exclusive to them (Senda-cook, 2009; Jamieson, 1995). In this case it is the dilemma of the hijab that is a signifier of faith, which justifies a woman’s role as nurturer, wife and mother in the society; and now, the new hijabi movement that offers Malay-Muslim a chance to become extreme and adventurous;

which is the polar opposite. Therefore the representation of the hijab is instrumental in creating perceptions, whether positive or otherwise upon media audiences, of which they are burdened with the dilemma of choosing either side in their negotiation of media content. The top hierarchy of this dimension would be agency, as the message of proliferating piety encourage more women to act and embrace the hijab in their activities;

and current trends; of which the new movement of the hijab is considered a phase of which soon will transform in one way or other. Through agency, Malay-Muslim women may feel at ease in their expression of Muslimness as the community of women in the hijab has considerably grown. Thus, through this strong bonds built among fellow hijabis, the media users feel that they have practiced their faith in their religiosity. Aside from that they would realize that they have the opportunity to become empowered from the support from using the media that engages in discussions on female modesty. Similarly, the media users feel protected in their practice of the hijab. Meanwhile, through literature, current trends have seen the sexualization of the hijab fashion, as they represented Western depictions that are attention-seeking. Consequently this had created a new standard of beauty among Malay-Muslim women, of which women who do not wear them are becoming more ostracized, despite being a form of misleading piety to young and aspiring Muslim girls.

Thirdly, the last dimension elaborated is based on the representations of the hijab that is regarded as a Malay-Muslim cultural identity. This dimension refers to the earlier

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discussed Structuration Theory (Giddens, 1984) that argued duality of structures and memory traces allow the hijab to penetrate upon the Muslim communities.

Figure 4.3: Coding frames based on Structuration Theory

The above figure is related to RQ3 of the study that attempts to examine the relationship between the hijab and Malay-Muslim women and its role in creating the normalization and permeation of veiling within an Islamic nation. The “structure” in question is a non-physical term, it relies on the mental mould that is created from human agency, of which recursive social practice becomes embedded in the minds and the identities of individuals, which in turn the “duality” in question is reproduced by a person’s reflexivity (Larsson, 2012; Andersson, 2010; Giddens, 1984, p.17). For the coding frames in this dimension, the implications of the hijab upon the local public in Malaysia are dependent on the relationship between a Malay-Muslim woman and her use of media. Their affirmation of the hijab in its assimilation and hybridity with the local public is coded from the second hierarchy, which views the content commodification of the hijab itself. The constant reproduction of modesty in media would in general; create audience awareness of the garment, and with time the hijab becomes an icon of Islamic identity among Malay-Muslims. Also in the second hierarchy is the instance of

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transformation, where human agents seem to conform to the reproduced practice and abide by the rules and regulations that define the hijab among Malay-Muslim women. In doing so, the affected public would believe that their transformation is towards progressiveness or the better, and in obtaining validation from the repetitive structure in media that what is done is the ideal representation Islam, would provide Malay-Muslim women gratification from their media consumption.

The second hierarchy also lists Malay-Muslimness as coding frame that is a major part of this study; investigating what constitutes the Malays in Malaysia from the meanings of the hijab on its women. Individually, it would mean a solid identification of ethno-religious ties with the Malay community and their dominance through the Islamic faith, while at the same time it could create a stereotype that create expectations from the discerning others. At the same time, true Malay-Muslimness as discussed in literature goes back to the idea of peasantry and partriachy, therefore the views of Giddens could have two contradicting outcomes in the coding.

Although hierarchies were established in each dimension, the top-level codes serve as a key themes whilst the following levels serves as relevant elements to the aformentioned.

In the analysis, the study will look into the significant patterns that emerged from the coding process regardless of its position in hierarchy. Then, the top three codes that are identified in each dimension will be discussed and related to the remaining and connecting elements earlier established in the dimension. This will be done as a measure to step back to make sense of the material through the research objectives and literature linked to the study. In order to do so, after the coding process had completed with ATLAS.ti, the primary investigator of the research took a step back and cleaned up the data. The investigator arranged the top codes for each dimension in matrices (see Appendix G, H

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and I) and analyzed the quotes related to the chosen codes. The latent and manifest meanings were then explored.