Disadvantaged persons

For the purposes of this research, ‘disadvantaged’ persons may be defined as people who receive limited income. Disadvantaged people have less choice of housing and transport, relative to people on higher incomes. Deciding on residential location tends to be a complex process (Chatman, 2006). This is particularly true for disadvantaged

In sprawled cities such as Perth, the costs of travel can severely limit the choices available to disadvantaged persons. The public transport network is limited and many outlying neighbourhoods are not well serviced. It takes a considerable amount of time to travel from Perth’s outlying suburbs to the central city, especially when buses have to compete with other motor vehicles for road space. While the cost of using public transport is relatively low, it is still a burden for the least well off in society, particularly when they have long distances to travel.

Cars are even less affordable. Even though the cost of owning and running a car remains relatively cheap (when compared to the real cost of motoring) following many years of subsidisation, it is still often prohibitively expensive for the poor (Kenworthy, 1994). This becomes more evident when the costs of insurance, maintenance, registration and fuel are factored in as ongoing costs alongside the capital cost of vehicle purchase. Nevertheless, people with limited means will likely often still rely on cars, because they have few alternatives.

Ideally, walking and cycling would provide the disadvantaged with transport opportunities. In most areas of the city, however, there is too much separation between places of work, services and residences. In the more mixed use, higher density areas of Perth, such as Subiaco and South Perth, housing costs are generally higher, effectively putting accommodation out the reach of the poor. In a wider context, the polarisation of income has led to urban geographies of affluence and poverty (Robinson et al., 2000).

The better off in society either live near to services, or have sufficient income to make travelling to services (often by car) a matter of course. Conversely, the least well off often end up in sprawled, poorly serviced communities, where housing costs are less

(Newman, 2007). The costs of travelling, however, are generally high. Thus, people who seem to be the most dependent on cars are perhaps those most unable to afford to be (Davison, 2004).

As for children, social inequity and reduced transport choices are linked to health risk factors. Those who reside in deprived areas tend also to be more exposed to air pollution (Kingham et al., 2007). Areas in the immediate vicinity of heavily-trafficked arteries tend to have lower land values. These areas become some of the few residential locations that are within the budget of those with low incomes (Acheson, 1998). These findings present some serious environmental justice issues. Despite being less likely to be able to afford to own cars or drive, disadvantaged people still tend to be most exposed to transport-related pollutants (Kingham et al., 2007).

a. Evidence and implications of the transport burden on the disadvantaged

A particularly infamous example of inequality in the provision of transport services was in Watts, Los Angeles. On the whole, Los Angeles was and continues to be a very sprawled, highly car dependent city. Watts is a suburb in south central Los Angeles, with a predominantly African American population. In 1965, a destructive large-scale riot occurred in the suburb. An investigation into the causes of the riot revealed that inadequate transport was likely a significant contributing factor (Steiner, 1978).

At the time, the Los Angeles metropolitan area was characterised by a public transport

prohibitively priced, amongst other failings. Public transport needs to be affordable for the least well-off in society so they can have a viable option for travelling longer distances (Howes and Rye, 2005). It appears that Watts was characterised by very poor infrastructure and deficient public transport services. Places of employment, education facilities, and health and social service providers were mostly located outside the district. Consequently, the low quality local public transport services made travelling to these destinations difficult. The services were neither subsidised nor co-ordinated and no free transfers were allowed. Moreover, a regional decline in public transport usage prompted cuts in services and fare increases, which affected the Watts community (Steiner, 1978).

The declining quality of an already substandard public transport system had such a pronounced effect on residents of Watts because car ownership, maintenance and usage were beyond the financial capabilities of many people. They were highly dependent on public transport for access to services; even essential services. In car dependent Los Angeles, where an estimated 50% of residents owned a vehicle at the time, car ownership in Watts was only 14% (Steiner, 1978).

More recent data from the UK illustrates an ongoing transport burden for the less affluent. Two out of every five job seekers included in a study by the Social Exclusion Unit (2003) claimed that lack of practical transport was a barrier to employment.

Furthermore, the Unit reported that over a 12-month period, 1.4 million people missed or turned down medical assistance because of transport problems. Finally, nearly 50%

of 16-18 year old students cited transport costs as being hard to meet and therefore impacted upon their ability to attend training courses (Social Exclusion Unit, 2003).

These examples reflect how there can be huge inequalities in transport opportunities. It also serves as an important lesson. A sustainable transport agenda needs to provide transport opportunities for all citizens, particularly those who are disadvantaged in some way, by providing quality public transport services and infrastructure for active modes, and generally improving access. These requirements include providing local employment and service opportunities. These are some of the outcomes envisaged by LN.