Discourse

Foucault’s writings on discourse (1972, 1980) have changed the way post-structuralists think about language and how it works in producing the world. Foucault described discourse as ‘practices that systematically form the objects of which they speak’ (Foucault, 1972, p49). When taking a post-structuralist approach, it is difficult to think about discourse in a traditional way as simply spoken or written communication or debate. To attempt to define the concept of discourse is contradictory. The focus of post-structuralism is not to define the meaning of a concept, including that of discourse, because meaning is not found but

deferred. Post-structuralism is more concerned with questions such as how discourse functions, how it is produced and what are its social effects? These questions are the types posed in analysing any structure and as such, they are embedded into the research

questions of this study (StPierre, 2000). Adopting Foucault’s approach enables researchers to highlight the ideas and assumptions about adult education that are taken for granted. Such an approach enables researchers to establish how power operates in HE and to highlight the effects of such operation of power (Fejes, 2008). The discourses associated with HE-in-FE are not simply language or writing, they are a historically and socially situated structure of statements, categories and beliefs that hold political significance and power. The theory proposed by Foucault suggests that language is assembled together according to socially constructed rules that permit some assertions to be made but not others. It follows that research cannot uncover the real experience of students studying HE-

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in-FE, instead, research can explore how such experiences are constructed as socially and historically situated discursive constructions (Foucault, 1972).

Once a discourse becomes normalised it is difficult to think outside it. Discourses of

widening participation and non-traditional students are prime examples here. The rules of a discourse mean that it only makes sense to construct meaning in particular ways; other statements become and remain incomprehensible and impossible. It is however possible to think differently; the uncertainty of discourse allows the possibility of refashioning and discovering new ways of conceptualising discourses and as such, revising accepted truths (StPierre, 2000). Discourse is not equivalent to language. Individuals making choices in language point to discourses being drawn upon. For example, choosing to define mature, first generation entrants as non-traditional students. This also highlights the ways that language works to position individuals within discourses (Wright, 2003).

Although discourse is constructive, working through educational institutions to produce realities that control the actions and bodies of individuals, it can be challenged. The theory of discourse proposed by Foucault suggested that changes in historical thought do happen when people consider different things to say. It is possible to fight, defy, and resist the discourses of power, control, and domination. Once the discourses and practices of

domination have been located they can be refuted. Post-structural theories of discourse, in a similar way to those of language, enable an understanding of how knowledge and truth are constructed in language and cultural practice, they also allow us to consider how they can be reconfigured (StPierre, 2000). This focus of this study is on locating the discourses which enable and constrain the social reality of HE-in-FE; to identify how these discourses shape behaviours and activities; and to challenge the deficit discourses which serve to reproduce the power relations and inequalities.

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3.8.3 Power

Following a humanist approach, humans naturally possess agency which gives them power to act in the world, as such, power is something that we possess, which can be deployed. Power is often considered in the pejorative, to be something that is malevolent. Those fighting for social justice may work to give away power, to empower those less privileged to avoid supremacy. Following a post-structuralist approach, power is not considered to be a negative concept, nor is it considered to belong to an individual. Post-structuralism argues that power is not a possession. It moves the focus from who has power to how power is exercised in relationships (Wendt and Boylan, 2008).

Foucault argues that power exists in relations (Foucault, 1982). It is not something that can be acquired or shared but is rather exercised from an immeasurable number of points. Foucault’s theory considers relations of power and how power is always present in human relationships. These power relations are not fixed; they are mobile and they can be

modified. Foucault argues that power produces reality and that it can be found in liberty as well as in domination and oppression. He argues that it is important to analyse the relations of power to discover what is being produced (StPierre, 2000).

Following Foucault’s approach, power

categorises the individual, marks him by his own individuality, attaches him to his own identity, imposes a law of truth on him which he must recognise and which others have to recognise in him (1982, p781).

Such power ties individuals to their own identities, which influences the ways they respond to others. Post-structuralism allows this research to gain an insight into how HE-in-FE students make sense of their experiences by examining the discourses available to them at

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a particular time and place. Such an approach argues that power is established through discourse and as such, often some discourses are silenced. The practice of discourse analysis allows the study to be sensitive to the marginalised voices of those studying HE-in- FE, and to challenge dominant discourses (Wendt and Boylan, 2008).

Power produces knowledge and so, in undertaking this research, I cannot claim to be doing so outside of power. In researching I am undertaking a professional role, which is

acknowledged by society and validated by a university that also exists because it is

considered to represent certain values and thus, forms of power. The activities engaged in through the course of this research are authorised by the exercising of various forms of power and the interests they serve extend beyond the pursuit of truth (Humes and Bryce, 2003). Despite these considerations, undertaking such research is important to highlight the relationships between power and knowledge. Arguably, students studying HE-in-FE are allowed access to certain types of knowledge located at the bottom of the hierarchy. Allowing non-traditional students such access acts to reproduce inequalities by limiting social mobility.

In a post-structuralist approach, power is considered fluid and so researchers understand an interview to be co-constructed between the interviewee and interviewer. Dominant

discourses are present during interviews and as such researchers should consider how they can open up conversations which move beyond these discourses. Interviewees have

multiple positions that they occupy; many of them within this study, for example, were HE- in-FE students but also women, managers within nurseries, mothers etc. Acknowledging these positions allowed me to move away from the notion of the student/ teacher,

interviewer/interviewee relationship (Wendt and Boylan, 2008). Such an approach enabled me to overcome any imbalance of power, building a relationship with the interviewees and opening up conversations.

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Taking the time to consider the power relations constituted within discourses facilitates a developing awareness of the multiple and diverse ways of knowing that shape HE-in-FE students’ ways of understanding their experiences (Wendt and Boylan, 2008). In uncovering and highlighting the prevalent and newly emerging discourses that students draw on to discuss their experiences, environments and conceptualisations of support, this research aims to make suggestions about the effects that these discourses might have on the students, their identities and how their social realities are produced.