Discussion and lessons learned

Most strategies deployed in creating entrepreneurial opportunities in EbA are similar to the strategies described in the literature on social-ecological systems, which are attributed to policy entrepreneurs (Huitema and Meijerink, 2010), institutional entrepreneurs (Westley et al., 2013) and environmental leaders (Evans et al., 2015). For instance, the strategies of establishing and maintaining relationships, coalition forming and lobbying found in our cases are similar to those used to establish water transitions (Huitema and Meijerink, 2010). Also, experimenting is not only important in transformations towards adaptive governance of social-ecological systems (Olsson et al., 2006), but also a key component of opportunity creation. Experimentation is also a prominent part of entrepreneurship in business and management literature, where experiments are perceived necessary to cope with the large uncertainties that follow from the creation of new products and services and to evaluate reactions of customers, the government and competitors (Hekkert et al., 2007). The following strategies that were identified in this study are particularly illustrative for the opportunity creation process in EbA. First, since EbA involves the conservation, management and restoration of ecosystems (CBD, 2009), it always includes a physical component. Hence, searching for a suitable location is a crucial strategy for implementing EbA. Second, because EbA involves physical projects and often aims to provide multiple ecosystem services, a variety of stakeholders is involved. Therefore, raising awareness by informing people about the plans, the motivations behind projects and sharing successes is an important strategy to create support for EbA. Third, framing is used to place the local EbA projects in a larger context, for example as part of a national programme or policy.

Our results yield four important lessons for the governance of adaptation. First, all four projects can generally be divided into two phases based on a clustering of the strategies deployed across the cases. The first phase starts with the recognition of climate change impacts, for example, coastal flooding and droughts, combined with other pressures on the human and natural system, for example habitat fragmentation. Then, entrepreneurs start to develop ideas on how to address these challenges (i.e., problem in search for a solution). This is often done in cooperation with like-minded people. Sometimes, the impacts of climate change are already observed or experienced by the entrepreneurs. Othertimes, the ideation, including the gathering of expertise and resources, takes place before the manifestation of a problem (i.e., solution in search for a problem, hence the denotation ‘preliminary’) (Mintrom and Norman, 2009). Simultaneously,

problem, hence the denotation ‘preliminary’) (Mintrom and Norman, 2009). Simultaneously, new relationships are established with people that can help the entrepreneurs to further develop their ideas. Then, the search for a suitable location starts where the entrepreneurs can implement and test their ideas in practice. Also, efforts are being made to form coalitions of people or organizations that complement each other. Further, means of financing the ideas are being sought which often includes lobbying and framing the project to make it fit particular funding requirements. The strategies are sometimes used by individual entrepreneurs and other times in cooperation with others. The first phase usually ends with finding a location and a partnership to start the EbA project. This process is depicted in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 shows that there is a sequence in strategies deployed while multiple strategies are also deployed at the same time. The sequentiality is more difficult to determine in the second phase, where multiple entrepreneurs develop and combine strategies. This observation is supported by Dimov (2007), who argues that rather than directional, sequential and ordered, the entrepreneurial innovation process is an iterative process of shaping, elaborating and refining ideas. Strategies such as establishing and maintaining relationships with project partners, authorities and local residents, lobbying at different administrative levels and framing are simultaneously deployed. Awareness raising is important to gain support for the project activities around the project location. The results of experiments are used for awareness raising

Recognition of

Fig. 2.1. Strategies deployed in the first phase of EbA projects where entrepreneurial opportunities are created. The strategies are depicted in italics. The horizontal arrows indicate sequentiality, whereas the double arrows indicate that the strategies are combined and influence each other. Note that preliminary idea development not precedes climate change recognition in all cases.

problem, hence the denotation ‘preliminary’) (Mintrom and Norman, 2009). Simultaneously, new relationships are established with people that can help the entrepreneurs to further develop their ideas. Then, the search for a suitable location starts where the entrepreneurs can implement and test their ideas in practice. Also, efforts are being made to form coalitions of people or organizations that complement each other. Further, means of financing the ideas are being sought which often includes lobbying and framing the project to make it fit particular funding requirements. The strategies are sometimes used by individual entrepreneurs and other times in cooperation with others. The first phase usually ends with finding a location and a partnership to start the EbA project. This process is depicted in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 shows that there is a sequence in strategies deployed while multiple strategies are also deployed at the same time. The sequentiality is more difficult to determine in the second phase, where multiple entrepreneurs develop and combine strategies. This observation is supported by Dimov (2007), who argues that rather than directional, sequential and ordered, the entrepreneurial innovation process is an iterative process of shaping, elaborating and refining ideas. Strategies such as establishing and maintaining relationships with project partners, authorities and local residents, lobbying at different administrative levels and framing are simultaneously deployed. Awareness raising is important to gain support for the project activities around the project location. The results of experiments are used for awareness raising

Recognition of

Fig. 2.1. Strategies deployed in the first phase of EbA projects where entrepreneurial opportunities are created. The strategies are depicted in italics. The horizontal arrows indicate sequentiality, whereas the double arrows indicate that the strategies are combined and influence each other. Note that preliminary idea development not precedes climate change recognition in all cases.

51

2

2.5 Discussion and lessons learned

Most strategies deployed in creating entrepreneurial opportunities in EbA are similar to the strategies described in the literature on social-ecological systems, which are attributed to policy entrepreneurs (Huitema and Meijerink, 2010), institutional entrepreneurs (Westley et al., 2013) and environmental leaders (Evans et al., 2015). For instance, the strategies of establishing and maintaining relationships, coalition forming and lobbying found in our cases are similar to those used to establish water transitions (Huitema and Meijerink, 2010). Also, experimenting is not only important in transformations towards adaptive governance of social-ecological systems (Olsson et al., 2006), but also a key component of opportunity creation. Experimentation is also a prominent part of entrepreneurship in business and management literature, where experiments are perceived necessary to cope with the large uncertainties that follow from the creation of new products and services and to evaluate reactions of customers, the government and competitors (Hekkert et al., 2007). The following strategies that were identified in this study are particularly illustrative for the opportunity creation process in EbA. First, since EbA involves the conservation, management and restoration of ecosystems (CBD, 2009), it always includes a physical component. Hence, searching for a suitable location is a crucial strategy for implementing EbA. Second, because EbA involves physical projects and often aims to provide multiple ecosystem services, a variety of stakeholders is involved. Therefore, raising awareness by informing people about the plans, the motivations behind projects and sharing successes is an important strategy to create support for EbA. Third, framing is used to place the local EbA projects in a larger context, for example as part of a national programme or policy.

Our results yield four important lessons for the governance of adaptation. First, all four projects can generally be divided into two phases based on a clustering of the strategies deployed across the cases. The first phase starts with the recognition of climate change impacts, for example, coastal flooding and droughts, combined with other pressures on the human and natural system, for example habitat fragmentation. Then, entrepreneurs start to develop ideas on how to address these challenges (i.e., problem in search for a solution). This is often done in cooperation with like-minded people. Sometimes, the impacts of climate change are already observed or experienced by the entrepreneurs. Othertimes, the ideation, including the gathering of expertise and resources, takes place before the manifestation of a problem (i.e., solution in search for a problem, hence the denotation ‘preliminary’) (Mintrom and Norman, 2009). Simultaneously,

problem, hence the denotation ‘preliminary’) (Mintrom and Norman, 2009). Simultaneously, new relationships are established with people that can help the entrepreneurs to further develop their ideas. Then, the search for a suitable location starts where the entrepreneurs can implement and test their ideas in practice. Also, efforts are being made to form coalitions of people or organizations that complement each other. Further, means of financing the ideas are being sought which often includes lobbying and framing the project to make it fit particular funding requirements. The strategies are sometimes used by individual entrepreneurs and other times in cooperation with others. The first phase usually ends with finding a location and a partnership to start the EbA project. This process is depicted in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 shows that there is a sequence in strategies deployed while multiple strategies are also deployed at the same time. The sequentiality is more difficult to determine in the second phase, where multiple entrepreneurs develop and combine strategies. This observation is supported by Dimov (2007), who argues that rather than directional, sequential and ordered, the entrepreneurial innovation process is an iterative process of shaping, elaborating and refining ideas. Strategies such as establishing and maintaining relationships with project partners, authorities and local residents, lobbying at different administrative levels and framing are simultaneously deployed. Awareness raising is important to gain support for the project activities around the project location. The results of experiments are used for awareness raising

Recognition of

Fig. 2.1. Strategies deployed in the first phase of EbA projects where entrepreneurial opportunities are created. The strategies are depicted in italics. The horizontal arrows indicate sequentiality, whereas the double arrows indicate that the strategies are combined and influence each other. Note that preliminary idea development not precedes climate change recognition in all cases.

problem, hence the denotation ‘preliminary’) (Mintrom and Norman, 2009). Simultaneously, new relationships are established with people that can help the entrepreneurs to further develop their ideas. Then, the search for a suitable location starts where the entrepreneurs can implement and test their ideas in practice. Also, efforts are being made to form coalitions of people or organizations that complement each other. Further, means of financing the ideas are being sought which often includes lobbying and framing the project to make it fit particular funding requirements. The strategies are sometimes used by individual entrepreneurs and other times in cooperation with others. The first phase usually ends with finding a location and a partnership to start the EbA project. This process is depicted in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 shows that there is a sequence in strategies deployed while multiple strategies are also deployed at the same time. The sequentiality is more difficult to determine in the second phase, where multiple entrepreneurs develop and combine strategies. This observation is supported by Dimov (2007), who argues that rather than directional, sequential and ordered, the entrepreneurial innovation process is an iterative process of shaping, elaborating and refining ideas. Strategies such as establishing and maintaining relationships with project partners, authorities and local residents, lobbying at different administrative levels and framing are simultaneously deployed. Awareness raising is important to gain support for the project activities around the project location. The results of experiments are used for awareness raising

Recognition of

Fig. 2.1. Strategies deployed in the first phase of EbA projects where entrepreneurial opportunities are created. The strategies are depicted in italics. The horizontal arrows indicate sequentiality, whereas the double arrows indicate that the strategies are combined and influence each other. Note that preliminary idea development not precedes climate change recognition in all cases.

Fig. 2.1. Strategies deployed in the first phase of EbA projects where entrepreneurial opportunities are created. The strategies are depicted in italics. The horizontal arrows indicate sequentiality, whereas the double arrows indicate that the strategies are combined and influence each other. Note that preliminary idea development not precedes climate change recognition in all cases.

50

2.5 Discussion and lessons learned

Most strategies deployed in creating entrepreneurial opportunities in EbA are similar to the strategies described in the literature on social-ecological systems, which are attributed to policy entrepreneurs (Huitema and Meijerink, 2010), institutional entrepreneurs (Westley et al., 2013) and environmental leaders (Evans et al., 2015). For instance, the strategies of establishing and maintaining relationships, coalition forming and lobbying found in our cases are similar to those used to establish water transitions (Huitema and Meijerink, 2010). Also, experimenting is not only important in transformations towards adaptive governance of social-ecological systems (Olsson et al., 2006), but also a key component of opportunity creation. Experimentation is also a prominent part of entrepreneurship in business and management literature, where experiments are perceived necessary to cope with the large uncertainties that follow from the creation of new products and services and to evaluate reactions of customers, the government and competitors (Hekkert et al., 2007). The following strategies that were identified in this study are particularly illustrative for the opportunity creation process in EbA. First, since EbA involves the conservation, management and restoration of ecosystems (CBD, 2009), it always includes a physical component. Hence, searching for a suitable location is a crucial strategy for implementing EbA. Second, because EbA involves physical projects and often aims to provide multiple ecosystem services, a variety of stakeholders is involved. Therefore, raising awareness by informing people about the plans, the motivations behind projects and sharing successes is an important strategy to create support for EbA. Third, framing is used to place the local EbA projects in a larger context, for example as part of a national programme or policy.

Our results yield four important lessons for the governance of adaptation. First, all four projects can generally be divided into two phases based on a clustering of the strategies deployed across the cases. The first phase starts with the recognition of climate change impacts, for example, coastal flooding and droughts, combined with other pressures on the human and natural system, for example habitat fragmentation. Then, entrepreneurs start to develop ideas on how to address these challenges (i.e., problem in search for a solution). This is often done in cooperation with like-minded people. Sometimes, the impacts of climate change are already observed or experienced by the entrepreneurs. Othertimes, the ideation, including the gathering of expertise and resources, takes place before the manifestation of a problem (i.e., solution in search for a problem, hence the denotation ‘preliminary’) (Mintrom and Norman, 2009). Simultaneously,

problem, hence the denotation ‘preliminary’) (Mintrom and Norman, 2009). Simultaneously, new relationships are established with people that can help the entrepreneurs to further develop their ideas. Then, the search for a suitable location starts where the entrepreneurs can implement and test their ideas in practice. Also, efforts are being made to form coalitions of people or organizations that complement each other. Further, means of financing the ideas are being sought which often includes lobbying and framing the project to make it fit particular funding requirements. The strategies are sometimes used by individual entrepreneurs and other times in cooperation with others. The first phase usually ends with finding a location and a partnership to start the EbA project. This process is depicted in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 shows that there is a sequence in strategies deployed while multiple strategies are also deployed at the same time. The sequentiality is more difficult to determine in the second phase, where multiple entrepreneurs develop and combine strategies. This observation is supported by Dimov (2007), who argues that rather than directional, sequential and ordered, the entrepreneurial innovation process is an iterative process of shaping, elaborating and refining ideas. Strategies such as establishing and maintaining relationships with project partners, authorities and local residents, lobbying at different administrative levels and framing are simultaneously deployed. Awareness raising is important to gain support for the project activities around the project location. The results of experiments are used for awareness raising

Recognition of

Fig. 2.1. Strategies deployed in the first phase of EbA projects where entrepreneurial opportunities are created. The strategies are depicted in italics. The horizontal arrows indicate sequentiality, whereas the double arrows indicate that the strategies are combined and influence each other. Note that preliminary idea development not precedes climate change recognition in all cases.

problem, hence the denotation ‘preliminary’) (Mintrom and Norman, 2009). Simultaneously, new relationships are established with people that can help the entrepreneurs to further develop their ideas. Then, the search for a suitable location starts where the entrepreneurs can implement and test their ideas in practice. Also, efforts are being made to form coalitions of people or organizations that complement each other. Further, means of financing the ideas are being sought which often includes lobbying and framing the project to make it fit particular funding requirements. The strategies are sometimes used by individual entrepreneurs and other times in cooperation with others. The first phase usually ends with finding a location and a partnership to start the EbA project. This process is depicted in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 shows that there is a sequence in strategies deployed while multiple strategies are also deployed at the same time. The sequentiality is more difficult to determine in the second phase, where multiple entrepreneurs develop and combine strategies. This observation is supported by Dimov (2007), who argues that rather than directional, sequential and ordered, the entrepreneurial innovation process is an iterative process of shaping, elaborating and refining ideas. Strategies such as establishing and maintaining relationships with project partners, authorities and local residents, lobbying at different administrative levels and framing are simultaneously deployed. Awareness raising is important to gain support for the project activities around the project location. The results of experiments are used for awareness raising

Recognition of

Fig. 2.1. Strategies deployed in the first phase of EbA projects where entrepreneurial opportunities are created. The strategies are depicted in italics. The horizontal arrows indicate sequentiality, whereas the double arrows indicate that the strategies are combined and influence each other. Note that preliminary idea development not precedes climate change recognition in all cases.

51

2

2.5 Discussion and lessons learned

Most strategies deployed in creating entrepreneurial opportunities in EbA are similar to the strategies described in the literature on social-ecological systems, which are attributed to policy entrepreneurs (Huitema and Meijerink, 2010), institutional entrepreneurs (Westley et al., 2013) and environmental leaders (Evans et al., 2015). For instance, the strategies of establishing and maintaining relationships, coalition forming and lobbying found in our cases are similar to those used to establish water transitions (Huitema and Meijerink, 2010). Also, experimenting is not only important in transformations towards adaptive governance of social-ecological systems (Olsson et al., 2006), but also a key component of opportunity creation. Experimentation is also a prominent part of entrepreneurship in business and management literature, where experiments are perceived necessary to cope with the large uncertainties that follow from the creation of new products and services and to evaluate reactions of customers, the government and competitors (Hekkert et al., 2007). The following strategies that were identified in this study are particularly illustrative for the opportunity creation process in EbA. First, since EbA involves the conservation, management and restoration of ecosystems (CBD, 2009), it always

Most strategies deployed in creating entrepreneurial opportunities in EbA are similar to the strategies described in the literature on social-ecological systems, which are attributed to policy entrepreneurs (Huitema and Meijerink, 2010), institutional entrepreneurs (Westley et al., 2013) and environmental leaders (Evans et al., 2015). For instance, the strategies of establishing and maintaining relationships, coalition forming and lobbying found in our cases are similar to those used to establish water transitions (Huitema and Meijerink, 2010). Also, experimenting is not only important in transformations towards adaptive governance of social-ecological systems (Olsson et al., 2006), but also a key component of opportunity creation. Experimentation is also a prominent part of entrepreneurship in business and management literature, where experiments are perceived necessary to cope with the large uncertainties that follow from the creation of new products and services and to evaluate reactions of customers, the government and competitors (Hekkert et al., 2007). The following strategies that were identified in this study are particularly illustrative for the opportunity creation process in EbA. First, since EbA involves the conservation, management and restoration of ecosystems (CBD, 2009), it always