- There should also be confidence building among all the stakeholders in Niger Delta through constant dialogue and effective communication and lastly,
- The NDDC as an agency for the development of the region should be reconstituted with members elected from the oil communities to reflect the various interest groups in the region.
Figure 2:8 Actors and Peace Building Foci
TYPES OF ACTORS APPROACHES TO PB FEW
Level 1: Top leaders Focus on high level
Military/ political/religious negotiation A
Leaders with high viability Emphasis on ceasefire led F By higly visible single F Personality E C
Level 2: Middle Range Problem-Solving Works T
Leadership Training in Conflict E
Leaders respected in sectors Resolution D
Ethnic/religious leaders Peace Commission
Academic/intellectuals Insider-partial teams
Humanitarian leaders
(NGOs) P
O Level 3: Grass-Root Local Peace Commission P
Leadership Grass-Root Training U
Leaders of indigenous NGOs Prejudice reduction
Community developers, Psychological work L
Local health officials, in post war trauma A
Refugees camp leaders T I O N MANY Adapted from Kimani (2004)
A significant gap in interdependence is rooted in the lack of responsive and coordinated relationships up and down the levels of leadership in a society affected by protracted violent conflict-vertical capacity; that is, the ability to develop relationship of respect and understanding between high levels of leadership with community and grass-roots level of leadership and vice versa. Sustainable vertical and horizontal integration are necessary for the implementation of any long term peace-building efforts. Lederach (1999) points out that the challenge for horizontal capacity is how to foster constructive understanding and dialogue across the lines of division in a society while the challenge of vertical capacity is how to develop genuine recognition that peace building involves multiple activities at different levels of leadership which take place simultaneously and
with distinct needs at each level. To date, vertical capacity has been weak and with each level of peace-building has been undertaken in isolation of other levels of the affected society despite the fact that all the levels are somewhat affected by the conflict and need to coordinate their activities.
Justice Gap:
Community involved in protracted conflict expect that peace processes will stop the direct violence and at the same time, address the structural issues that gave rise to conflict in the first place. The latter aspect usually, requires a systemic transformation of relationships in the affected community‟s political, economic and social policies. It has been observed that there is a progression of conflict from the latent stage to open conflict and direct violence if people feel that an issue of justice and human or group rights need to change but where channels for effecting such change is not adequately provided.
People therefore engage in direct violence to address the perceived injustice or what is now referred to as structural violence, that is, the underlying economic, cultural, social and political structure detrimental to the community. Peace negotiation usually result in peace accords that reduces the direct violence, but the accords rarely address the fundamental issue that gave rise to the violence, that is, the structural violence. This is what Lederach refers to as the justice gap or the met expectations for social economic, religious and cultural change which creates a gap between the expectations for peace and what the accords delivered.
The Process-Structure Gap
According to Lederach (1997 & 1999), the metaphor reconciliation in conflict situations suggests that the goal is to end something that is not desired. Transformation on the other hand, insinuates that something not desired is changing or taking a new form. Putting the two metaphors together, embraces the challenge of changing that which tore people apart and building something that they desire, hence essentially, introducing the idea of a peace process that entails dynamism and progression.
Lederach (1999) observes that if peace is thought of as a process, the critique arises that it is an endless dynamic one that leads to no substantive outcome while if it is envisioned as a result, it is presumed as an end-state but, in reality, peace is neither an
end nor a state and if treated as such, the desire to preserve or control destroys its essence. Peace is neither a process nor a structure but both with peace-building requiring work at constructing infrastructures that support permanent processes of the desired change. By conceptualising peace as a process-structure, one moves the focus from an agreement and event towards the commitment that embraces the building of permanent relationships that are both dynamic and adaptive to social and political changes.
In essence, the three peace-building gaps as identified by Lederach (1999) can be envisioned in the Niger Delta region namely interdependence gap, the justice gap and the process-structure gap. The interdependence gap is the relationship that exists among the various levels of leadership in the region which include the government, oil companies, traditional leaders, religious leaders, community leaders, youth, women and NGOs. This gap exists as there have not been effective interactions and relationships among the various levels of the leadership on how the needs and aspirations of the people could be met. The challenge therefore is for these various levels of leadership to develop a way of understanding and dialoguing among each other to see the need for genuine peace- building based on developing activities that will bring development to the region.
The people of the region had been neglected over the years due to the underdevelopment of the region. As a result, the people of the region perceive this as underdevelopment and injustice by the Nigerian government despite the huge revenue generated from the region. This implies that the justice gap that exists in the region relates to the inability of the Nigerian government and the oil companies operating in the region to meet the developmental needs of the region, which invariably leads to the process-structure gap. The process-structure gap therefore is a process of putting in place structures that will bring peace and sustainable development to the region. This entails road construction and rehabilitation, building of schools and health care centres, provision of social amenities like pipe-borne water, electricity, markets and skill acquisition centres where people can be empowered to improve the living conditions of the people in the Niger Delta region.
The theoretical framework for this study was based on Human Needs theory by Burton and Miller‟s Force Field theory associated with the concept of participation. The human needs theory is based on the premise that human beings need to satisfy their basic
needs in order to maintain a stable society. As Maslow puts it, these are physiological needs of food, shelter, hunger, thirst, safety and security. The peace and security of the Niger Delta region especially the delta area have been threatened by the activities of the oil companies operating in the region. Their means of livelihood which is mainly agriculture and fishing have been destroyed due to the effect of oil spills, extraction and exploration activities of the oil companies. Hence, the people can no longer meet their basic needs of survival that is food, shelter and clothing most especially the youths who are unemployed. This invariably leads to youth restiveness and destruction of lives and properties in the area.
On the other hand, Miller‟s force-field analysis theory which is associated with the concept of participation is premised on Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs. This means the people of the Niger delta area will only participate in development projects that will meet their survival and safety needs; community felt needs and technological changes. It only goes to show that when people are hungry and not secure, they cannot effectively participate in development project.
Community based approaches (CBA) are the different ways or processes through which conflict resolution can take place within the community. Community based programme (CBA) refers to development activities that are selected, planned and implemented by the people of a community, through its leadership structures on a decentralised basis, while community based structures (CBS) are the constituted authority representing the interest of various groups within a community. These include traditional rulers, community leaders, women leaders and youth leaders.
The major objective of CBA will be to:
(i) Assist communities in the Delta region to live peacefully among other.
(ii) Introduce a more effective and sustainable approach to conflict management and transformation of the region through community participation and leadership structures.
The community based strategy seeks to establish more effective and sustainable approaches to improving the lives of the people and reduce poverty and underdevelopment of the area by making fundamental changes in the approach used by government and oil companies operating in the area.
(a) By empowering the people in the communities to decide what programmes to be initiated.
(b) By making changes in the composition and type of development activities to concentrate upon economic activities that are capable of improving the lives of the people.
(c) Identifies communities and individuals as the basic organisation units. This will include the community and youth leaders, traditional rulers, women and religious leaders to be formed into peace committees used as informal conflict resolution structure.
According to Kimani (2004:19),
a grass root peace making approach hinges on the premise that since most of the active players in any conflict situation are grassroots people, it becomes inevitable to involve the society in the process of peace making and conflict resolution that stresses the need of fostering a spirit of peace and mutual respect for both individuals and groups, in times of peace and in times of conflict.
Components of the Strategy/Approaches
The main components of the CBP strategy are based on a process of generated interest and involvement in CBPS, developing the roles and capabilities of the main participants, preparing and implementing community action plans and learning from different participatory approaches. A preliminary programme of social mobilisation and advocacy would be needed to initiate community interest, attract participation and establish legitimate, effective leadership structures for development and peace building activities at community level. After leadership structures have been established, the communities would embark upon a participatory planning exercise to identify their own developmental needs, priorities and project activities that will bring peace and sustainable development to the region. This would also include the formation of the project syndicates and groups to be responsible for individual projects. These components are summarised below:
1) Social mobilisation and advocacy. A preliminary programme to create interest within communities and promote community participation and understanding of and support for community-based approaches among government officers, oil companies involved in the development of the region.
2) Community participation: The participation of the people in formulating and implementing initiatives to improve their livelihoods.
3) Community leadership: The establishing of community leadership structures capable of organising and spearheading community based development activities.
4) Transfer of decision making responsibility and control to communities:
The community leadership structures will have total control regarding the selection and implementation of development activities.
5) Community-Based projects: Projects to be undertaken are expected to contribute directly to the economic empowerment of the people in the region.
Employment generating activities are to be developed. Equally, projects expected to develop the areas are to be executed. Such projects as provision of electricity, pipe-borne water, construction of roads, building of schools and health centres.
6). Project Participants, Syndicates and groups: As part of the process of preparing and implementing the community action plan, members of the community would organise themselves to take part in community development projects, including community wide participation and also to form smaller groups.
7) Training and Institution Building: Community leaders and members of the communities will be trained so as to enable them perform their roles effectively.
(Final report of the Ministry of Finance and Development Planning of Republic of Botswana, 1997).
The following theories are reviewed for the purpose of the study.