Distance Relay Application Considerations

2.5 3

0 10 20 30

4 8 12 14

40 6

10

Ig

Ground fault current – 3I0 in kA (b)

Figure 2.62 Variation of zero-sequence resistance and reactance in a 230 kV pipe-type cable as a function of ground-fault current

The nonlinearity of the zero-sequence impedance for currents below 5 kiloamperes is more pronounced. Reference [21] provides more detailed data about the variation of zero-sequence impedance of pipe-type cables for ground currents below 5 kiloamperes. Short-circuit programs cannot handle nonlinearities such as the variation that steel pipe saturation causes in zero-sequence impedance of pipe-type cables. For that reason, short-circuit studies near pipe-type cables will probably require an iterative process for better accuracy. Using a linear short-circuit model and a few discrete zero-sequence impedance data for different levels of pipe saturation, e.g., low currents (unsaturated), medium currents, and high currents (saturated), with a couple of iterations is adequate.

2.4.6.2 Distance Relay Application Considerations

Frequently, protection engineers use phase distance and ground distance elements in directional comparison schemes for cable protection. They also use distance elements for Zone 1 instantaneous tripping and for backup cable protection using Zone 2 and higher zone time-delayed tripping. Distance relay element application for cable protection requires a good knowledge of cable electrical parameters and a good understanding of the relay technology and any potential limitations.

The cable series impedance of underground cables differs considerably from that of overhead lines. In general, the power cable impedance is less than the overhead line impedance because the phase conductor spacing in cables is less than the spacing in overhead lines. In some cases, the impedance may be less than the minimum distance relay setting value. The cable zero-sequence impedance angle is less than the zero-sequence impedance angle for overhead lines. The zero-sequence angle compensation requires a large setting range that accommodates all possible cable angles.

The current return path for an underground cable depends upon many factors: sheath bonding methods, sheath grounding, and any conducting path in parallel with the cable. All of these factors affect the

underground cable sequence impedances, especially the zero-sequence impedance of the cable.

Therefore, the computed sequence impedance value is questionable. In pipe-type cables, the zero-sequence impedance varies as a function of the ground-fault current level. Most faults in underground single-conductor cables involve ground. It is therefore important to concentrate on the impedances seen by ground distance relays for faults in the underground cable and faults external to the cable zone of protection. Equation (2.30) gives the compensated ground loop impedance.

r 0 a

c I ka •I Z V

= + (2.30)

Where:

Va = line-to-neutral voltage Ir = residual current (Ir = Ia + Ib + Ic)

k0 = zero-sequence current compensation factor

Choosing the correct zero-sequence current compensation factor, k0, produces the correct distance measurement in terms of positive-sequence impedance. Equation (2.31) gives the proper zero-sequence current compensation factor for overhead transmission lines.

L 1

L 1 L 0

0 3•Z

Z

k Z −

= (2.31)

Where:

Z_0L = zero-sequence impedance of the line Z_1L = positive-sequence impedance of the line

Note that in overhead transmission lines, Z_1L and Z_0L are proportional to the distance. However, this is not true for underground cables where the zero-sequence impedance may be nonlinear with respect to distance [22]. The zero-sequence compensation factor, k₀, for solid-bonded and cross-bonded cables is not constant for internal cable faults, and it depends on the location of the fault along the cable circuit.

Because ground distance relays use a single value of k₀, the compensated loop impedance displays a nonlinear behavior. Annex 3 provides an example on how to calculate the zero-sequence current compensation factor for an underground cable.

Single-Point Bonded Cable Sheath

Let us look at the compensated loop impedance for different types of cable grounding arrangements.

We will look at a cable with the sheaths grounded at one end only, with a ground continuity conductor installed along the cable run and grounded at both ends of the cable. Figure 2.63 shows the system used to calculate the compensated loop impedances at the two ends of the cable.

S R

Ground Continuity Conductor

Figure 2.63 Single-point bonded cable at Terminal S

The cable in this example is a 1000-meter, 230 kV, single-conductor 1200 mm² copper cable. The positive-sequence impedance of the cable is Z1c = 0.018 + j 0.135 Ω, and the zero-sequence impedance is Z0c = 0.131 + j 0.551 Ω. Figure 2.64 and Figure 2.65 show the compensated loop impedances seen by the ground distance relays at the two ends of the cable. The zero-sequence current compensation factor calculated using (2.31) is k0 = 1.048 – j 0.139 Ω. There is a major difference in the impedance seen by the relay at Terminal S for a core-to-sheath fault and a core-to-ground fault at Terminal R. For

with a zero-sequence compensation factor of 0.79, the compensated impedance seen from Terminal S is 0.155 + j 0.036 Ω.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

1.0 Terminal S Compensated Loop X in Ohms

Distance From Terminal S in p.u.

Compensated Loop X in Ohms

0.135 Core-to-Ground Fault at Terminal R

Core-to-Sheath Fault at Terminal R

Im(ZrS(n))

Figure 2.64 Terminal S compensated loop reactance in ohms for a single-phase-to-sheath fault on a single-point bonded cable Note the following:

• The compensated impedance depends on the source impedance.

• The imaginary component of the measured impedance is very low compared to the positive-sequence impedance of the cable, even if the length of the cable is increased by ten times (10 km).

• The imaginary part of the loci of the measured impedance for faults along the cable remains well below the imaginary part of the impedance measured for a core-to-ground fault at the opposite cable end (Terminal R).

Note also that the compensated loop impedance for a cable, with sheaths grounded at Terminal S only, has a linear characteristic similar to an overhead line. This linear characteristic is not like the compensated loop impedances of cables whose sheaths are cross-bonded or solidly bonded and grounded at both ends of the cable. Note also that the compensated loop impedances are not the same at the two ends of the cable because of sheath-grounding asymmetry.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.09

0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13

1.0 Terminal R Compensated Loop X in Ohms

Distance From Terminal S in p.u.

Compensated Loop X in Ohms

Im(ZrR(n))

Figure 2.65 Terminal R compensated loop reactance in ohms for a single-phase-to-sheath fault on a single-point bonded cable

Figure 2.66 shows variation of the compensated loop impedance caused by a change in the zero-sequence source impedance.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

1.0 Terminal S Compensated Loop X in Ohms

Distance From Terminal S in p.u.

Solid: X With Z0S = 10 Ohms Dashed: X With Z0S = 1 Ohms

Figure 2.66 Variation of the compensated loop reactance at Terminal S caused by a change of the zero-sequence source impedance magnitude

For a core-to-sheath ground fault right in front of Terminal R, the compensated loop impedance at Terminal R is not zero and takes on a large value, 0.189 + j 0.092 Ω.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0

0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

1.0 Terminal R Compensated Loop R and X

m(n)

Distance From Terminal S in p.u.

Solid: Compensated Loop R in Ohms Dashed: Compensated Loop X in Ohms

Figure 2.67 Terminal R compensated loop X and R in ohms for a single-phase-to-sheath fault on a single-point bonded cable

In addition, the compensated loop resistance at Terminal R decreases as the fault is moved away from Terminal R, as shown in Figure 2.67. Note that a fault at Terminal R is represented at one p.u.

throughout this section. In other words, fault distance is increasing as the fault moves from Terminal S toward Terminal R.

The compensated reactance measured at Terminal S for a fault at the end of the cable involving sheath return current is only 30 percent of the reactance measured for an external fault at Terminal R. From this analysis, we can conclude that a Zone 1 ground distance relay setting at Terminal S, the terminal where the sheaths are grounded, can be very selective and cover the whole length of the cable.

However, relay settings at this terminal for overreaching backup zones must be carefully chosen. In contrast, we cannot successfully apply a Zone 1 ground distance relay at Terminal R. The relay at Terminal R sees a compensated loop impedance discontinuity between a sheath and a core-to-ground fault at Terminal R but does not see any impedance discontinuity between a core-to-sheath and a core-to-ground fault at the remote terminal.

Solid-Bonded Cable Sheaths (Grounded at Both Ends of the Cable)

Next, we look at the compensated loop impedances for the same cable but with the sheaths grounded at both ends of the cable, as shown in Figure 2.68. Note that a ground continuity conductor is present and grounded at both ends of the cable run. Since the sheaths are grounded at both ends of the cable, the compensated loop impedance varies continuously without any discontinuities present between internal and external cable faults.

S R

Ground Continuity Conductor

Figure 2.68 Solid-bonded cable with sheaths grounded at both ends of the cable

There are two ground fault current return paths for faults that involve the cable core with its own sheath. The first path is directly in the faulted cable sheath. The second path is the faulted cable sheath, the sheaths of the other two cables, the ground, and the ground continuity conductor via the grounding of the sheaths at the cable ends, as shown in Figure 2.69.

Current Return Path in Solid-Bonded Sheath Cable

Figure 2.69 Paths for ground current return for a core-to-sheath fault in single-conductor solid-bonded cables

The amount of fault current flowing in each of the return paths varies continuously depending on the resistance of each path as the location of the fault changes along the cable circuit. The continuous variation of the ground current return path causes a nonlinear relation between the fault point and the compensated loop impedance. Figure 2.70 shows the compensated loop impedance nonlinear behavior for ground faults along the cable.

0 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.05

0 0.05 0.1 0.15

0.06 Terminal S Compensated Loop Z in Ohms

Re(ZrS(n))

Terminal S Compensated Loop R in Ohms 0.03

Terminal S Compensated Loop X in Ohms

Im(ZrS(n))

1.0 p.u.

0.75 p.u.

0.5 p.u.

0.25 p.u.

Figure 2.70 Nonlinear behavior of compensated loop impedance in solid-bonded cables Note the following:

• The measured impedance for a fault at the end of the cable is the positive-sequence impedance of the cable, using the cable’s complex compensation factor.

• The measured impedance loci at Terminal R and Terminal S are not the same because of nonidentical source impedances at Terminal R and Terminal S.

• A nonlinear relationship exists between the measured reactance and the fault location.

Figure 2.71 shows the compensated loop reactance obtained with two different compensation factors.

The solid line is for a zero-sequence current compensation factor, k₀ = 0.79, that is used on a typical 230 kV overhead transmission line. The dashed line is for the actual complex zero-sequence current compensation factor, k₀ = 0.052 – j 0.287, calculated for an external fault for the cable in Figure 2.68.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0

0.05 0.1 0.15

1.0 Terminal S Compensated Loop X in Ohms

Distance From Terminal S in p.u.

Solid: X in Ohms With k0 = 0.79 Dashed: X in Ohms With k0 = 0.052 – j 0.287

Figure 2.71 Compensated loop reactance for different values of zero-sequence current compensation factors

Note that the slopes of the two curves are different, depending on the zero-sequence current compensation factor one chooses. The variation of the slope depends on the particular cable and system studied and cannot be generalized for all single-conductor solid-bonded cables. A steeper slope of the compensated reactance for faults at the remote end of the cable would offer some advantage in setting a Zone 1 ground distance relay, in spite of the small impedance characteristics of single-conductor cables.

Figure 2.72 shows the nonlinear behavior of the compensated loop resistance at Terminal S as a function of fault distance in p.u. along the cable.

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06

1.0 Terminal S Compensated Loop R in Ohms

m(n)

Distance From Terminal S in p.u.

Compensated Loop R in Ohms

Re(ZrS(n)) 0.05

Figure 2.72 Compensated loop resistance at Terminal S

Note that in solid-bonded and cross-bonded cables, the compensated loop resistance is not maximum for a fault at the remote end.

Cross-Bonded Cable Sheaths

Cross-bonded sheaths are used more often in longer cable runs where the induced voltage in the sheaths is unacceptable. Longer cable circuits can consist of more than one major section. The voltage induced on the cable sheaths after three minor sections (i.e., one major section) during load is close to zero. The ground return path in cross-bonded cables changes depending on the fault point in the cable

circuit. In addition, moving the fault from the end of a minor section to the beginning of the next minor section causes a different return path for the ground fault current and, consequently, causes a discontinuity in the compensated loop impedance. This discontinuity, shown in Figure 2.73, offers some advantage in obtaining selectivity for a Zone 1 setting distance element for faults in the last minor section.

- 0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14

0.4

0.2 0.3

0.1

0

End of 1st Minor Section

End of 2nd Minor Section

Re(ZrS1)

Compensated Loop R in Ohms k0 = 0.0057 – j 0.3498 (a)

Terminal S Compensated Loop Z in Ohms

0.4

0.2 0.3

0.1

0

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

0

End of 1st Minor Section

End of 2nd Minor Section Terminal S Compensated Loop X in Ohms

Im(ZrS1) Im(ZrS1)

X in Ohms With k0 = 0.0057 – j 0.3498Compensated Loop X in Ohms

Distance From Terminal S in p.u.

(b) End of 3rd Minor Section

End of 3rd Minor Section

Figure 2.73 Compensated loop impedance (a) and reactance (b) for cross-bonded cables

Note that the discontinuity is more pronounced when the fault is moved from the first to the second minor section. The cable modeled to generate the data for Figure 2.73 consists of three minor sections (i.e., only one major section). However, for longer cable circuits with two or more major sections, the discontinuity tends to be less pronounced as the fault moves to the last minor section.

Note the following:

• The measured impedance loci at Terminal R and Terminal S are not the same because of nonidentical source impedances at Terminal R and Terminal S.

• A nonlinear relationship exists between the measured reactance and the fault location.

• A nonlinear relation exists between the measured resistance and the fault location.

In document MODERN DISTANCE PROTECTION. FUNCTIONS and APPLICATIONS (Page 77-84)