Drawing the Three Constructs Together

An example which may demonstrate the interconnectedness of the three constructs under consideration relates to the relational aspects of certain schizoaffective constructs, specifically schizotypy, with elements of mental imagery. It was suggested earlier that the focus of researchers on distinct creativity-imagery and creativity-schizotypy links may have left a potentially worthwhile area relatively unexplored, that of the imagery- schizotypy link. The word „relatively‟ is used here because some studies have been conducted more recently which make associations in related areas. In their research with

hallucination-prone individuals from the normal population, Aleman, Nieuwenstein, Böcker, and De Haan (2000) demonstrated that the „high hallucination-prone‟ individuals in their study reported higher imagery vividness than „low hallucination-prone‟ comparisons, suggesting an underlying link between these experiences, which are perceptual in nature. In their paper which looked at whether the confusion of internal and external imaginal stimuli resulted in hallucinations, Böcker, Hijman, Kahn, and De Haan (2000) found no differences between hallucinating and non-hallucinating participants in perception, but again found that the former group reported having more vivid imagery. While hallucinations, and indeed pseudo-hallucinations, are not synonymous with imagery, these examples highlight a certain „imaginal‟ aspect to the construct. This is also relevant because, as has been shown, pseudo-hallucinatory experiences are associated with positive schizotypy, which is related to creativity. Sack et al. (2005) outlined the similarities between imagery and hallucinations by stating that mental images also have perceptual qualities and can occur in the absence of appropriate stimuli. However, the important difference between hallucinations and mental images comes from whether one may control these perceptual experiences, for hallucinations typically occur beyond control and intention (Bentall, 1990). Mental images by contrast are intentionally and actively generated and can thus be more easily controlled. This last point requires one caveat, however, and that is that the ability to control mental imagery is not one enjoyed by all at equal levels. A related point comes from Barrett (1993, cited Sack et al., 2005) who found that people experiencing hallucinations had more vivid

hallucinations. Additionally, Barrett and Etheridge (1992, cited in Sack et al., 2005) claimed that hallucinations were often associated with hypnagogic and hypnopompic sleep, which has already been shown to be linked to creativity (Chapter 1, section 1.1.1).

Sack, van de Ven, Etschenberg, Schzta, and Linden (2005) suggest that enhanced imagery vividness may possibly indicate a trait marker of schizophrenia, which would therefore theoretically demonstrate some association with schizotypy. Especially relevant to the present discussion is that strong correlations between increased vividness of mental imagery and the presence of positive schizotypal traits have been reported (van de Ven & Merckelbach, 2003). Bell (2010) suggests that the link between imagery and schizotypy may only materialise when considering imagery in a range of sensory modalities such as visual, auditory, gustatory, and cutaneous. As was shown in Chapter 1, mental imagery has been related to creativity in a wide range of settings, and the examples just outlined demonstrate further overlaps in the constructs under investigation in this thesis. None of these studies looks at mental imagery control, however, and it may be that some interesting associations exist between this ability and schizotypal thought, and subsequent relationships to creativity.

In an investigation of conceptual expansion, creativity, mental imagery, and respective relationships with psychopathology, Abraham, Windmann, Daum, and Gunturkun (2005)

animal drawing task which measures conceptual expansion. This was supposedly due to defocused top-down processing which allowed this group of participants‟ access to a wider conceptualisation of relevance and to ignore schemas of common earth creatures, therefore conceiving of more conceptually unique drawings, and it may be that performance on this task is additionally benefitted by enhanced imaging abilities. Barrantes-Vidal (2004) notes McConaghy‟s (1960) observation that such allusive thinking may be linked to predispositions to psychosis and to creative cognition, creative cognition, incidentally, also embodying mental imagery processes. She describes the often irrelevant associations typical of psychotic thought which arise due to impairments in attentional filtering, again due to defocused top-down processing, and notes an enhanced capacity for “making logical attributions” (p. 68) amongst overinclusive thoughts, that is, those which go beyond typical strategies and which may therefore lead to increased creative output. It is conceivable that the creative person may also demonstrate these abilities, and that mental imagery processes may be involved as well. Unorthodox thinking and behaviours are also characteristic of schizotypy. It has already been mentioned that Einstein, Coleridge, and Dali all engaged in elaborate mental imaging techniques to facilitate their creativity, and even more interesting is that they have all been said to exhibit schizotypal behaviours and traits (Glazer, 2009; Prentky, 2000-2001). It is acknowledged that there are problems with characterising and assigning traits to people who are dead, but the claim is still a compelling one and buttresses arguments to be presented throughout the thesis.

What I am proposing is that relationships between creativity and enhanced positive schizotypy may reflect elaborate and unconstrained imaginations, as well as uncontrollable and unusual imaginal experiences, the associations between creativity and imagery on the other hand reflecting the ability to control and reconceptualise visual images.