Education Acts are bills passed by Parliament with regard to the provision and development of education. The thrust of the research aim is focused on those Acts of which the improper implementation could possibly be responsible for learner dropout. This makes it relevant to examine the Acts to ascertain if there is a link between them and learner dropout. The Acts described below govern the education of the country, and are supposed to be based on the country’s cultural values and needs. They are also those that prepare Botswana for global developments.
3.3.1 The Education Act of 1966
The Education Act of 1966 (Government of Botswana, 2010:3) provides the legal framework for the development of education within the country. This Act was revised in 1977, when Education for Kagisano was launched, in 1994, when the Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE) was introduced, and in 2002, to incorporate tertiary education and to give powers to the Botswana Examinations Council (BEC) to conduct examinations and to issue certificates (UNESCO, 20011:1; World Data on Education, 2006:6). At independence in 1966 Parliament passed the Education Act to replace the colonial Native Fund of 1904, by which the Batswana raised money to pay for their own education (Tlo & Campbell, 2001:290). The Education Act deals with the education structure, the various levels and the duration at each level, and the kind of certificate that is awarded at each level, as well as the mandated Bodies, the various Departments, and their duties (Dart, Chadwick, Davis & Molefe, 2007:3; World Data on Education, 2006:8). Policies regarding the provision and development of education emanate from the Education Act of 1966, and are therefore considered binding on the implementers.
The general public is of the opinion that the Policies that emanated from the above-named Act (i.e., Education for Kagisano) most of all contribute to learner dropout, because some of the strategies set up to ensure its proper implementation and sustainability (cf. 3.5.1) were
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either replaced or not used by the policy implementers, which could be leading to learner dropout (cf. 1.3.3).
The link between the above-named policy and learner dropout will be examined later (cf. 3.11.1; 3.11.3 and 3.11.7).
3.3.2 The Botswana Examinations Act of 2002
The Botswana Examinations Act of 2002 gave the BEC the power to conduct independent examinations and to issue certificates (UNESCO, 2011:2; BEC, 2008(a):2). In 1977 the NCE recommended the establishment of a National Examination Council (BEC, 2008(a):1). At a National Conference held in 1991 (in Gaborone, Botswana), it was declared that there was a need for an Examination Board that was in line with the national education goals, and was focused on course-work (World Data on Education, 2006:3). Prior to the Examinations Act, the Junior Certificate Examinations (JCE) were administered by the University of Swaziland, and later by the Universities of Botswana, Swaziland and Lesotho, and the examination authority was based in Lesotho. The Form 5 school-leaving examinations were administered by the Matriculation Board, with personnel selected from Universities in South Africa (BEC, 2008(a):1). Localisation began in 1975 when Botswana established the Research and Testing Centre to conduct examinations at primary and junior secondary school levels (BEC, 2008(a):1).
Besides its main goal of nationalising the examination that focuses on course-work, the Examinations Act also has a number of other objectives.
Among the objectives is to give advice to the MOESD on assessment policies and programmes that would contribute to the delivery and achievement of the MOESD’s vision and targets. This implies that the BEC would steer the implementation mechanisms of the national curricula in the schools towards the realisation of the objectives of the Examinations Act (BEC, 2008(a):8). However, the BEC’s assessment syllabus diverges from that of the national curricula (cf. 1.3.4), and could be contributing to dropout.
Another objective of the Examinations Act is to support the MOESD by means of monitoring and evaluating teachers to ensure that the Act is properly implemented. The measures described above are aimed at generating feedback to inform decisions concerning policy,
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programmes and the implementation of the curriculum (BEC, 2008(a):8). Nonetheless, the BEC’s monitoring and evaluation methods do not always align with the MOESD’s monitoring and evaluation methods, and could be leading to learner dropout (cf. 1.3.4).
Another objective of the Examinations Act is geared towards providing training through appropriate assessment techniques that transform Botswana into a competitive and knowledge-based global economy (in accordance with the goal of Vision 2016 and the MOESD) (BEC, 2008(a):8). Nevertheless, the BEC’s findings (through Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)) revealed that the assessment standards in Botswana are lower than the international average (cf. 1.2.2). This could also be contributing to learner dropout. A further objective of the above-named Act is to provide highly competitive standards, relevant and responsive qualifications and assessments, as well as examination services to Botswana (BEC, 2008(a):9). However, Borkum (2009:2) averred that the relevance of the BEC’s assessment procedures, in relation to their practical use after school, is too rigid, and not transferable to the field of work. Thus, the implementation of this objective could be contributing to learner dropout (cf. 1.3.4).
A five-year strategic plan was developed in 2008 towards the successful implementation, application and sustainability of the Examinations Act. Those strategies pertaining to learner dropout are discussed below.
Among the BEC’s five-year implementation plan is the appointment of an implementation and monitoring team, and personnel. This team would have the mandate to oversee that all the prescribed strategies are effectively utilised towards the achievement of the objectives of the Examinations Act (BEC, 2008(a):15). This strategy has an inherent problem, as the BEC does not have the mandate over internal monitoring activities (cf. 3.3.2). This hampers the BEC’s progress, and could be causing dropout.
The strategic plan also involves creating the division of compliance and quality assurance to formulate and ensure the implementation and equitable application of the Examinations Act, as well as policies formulated on the set objectives, namely by developing guidelines to encourage transparency. This entails enhancing the development of quality assessment
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instruments for examinations (BEC, 2008(a):15). Despite the intended aim of the above- named plan, transparency has not curbed learner dropout (cf. 1.2.2).
The conclusion drawn, based on the foregoing examination of the objectives and the strategic plan of the named Act is that the objectives and the strategic plan were set up to ensure equitable and fair assessment procedures that would prevent learner dropout. However, due to the practice of summative assessment at high-stake examinations the Act is deemed a major contributor to learner dropout in Botswana (cf. 1.3.4). This perception was confirmed by studies conducted by Borkum (2009:2, 4) and Ntumy (2010:67). These researchers found that school-leavers drop out because they find it difficult to transfer (to practice) the theoretical assessment skills (attained in school).
3.3.3 The Basic Education Act of 1991
After the adoption and the parliamentary ratification of the Jomtien Declaration of 1990 (EFA), a National Conference on education was held in June 1991 in Gaborone, Botswana, with the focus on meeting the needs of children, youths, adults, non-governmental organisations, as well as the private sector (NCE, 1993:42). The themes of the Conference were policy formulation, the improvement of the quality of education, school management and administration, as well as forming partnerships with the private sector in the provision of education. At this Conference it was declared that basic education should be compulsory and free (World Data on Education, 2006:3).
Though basic education was declared free until 2006, it was never compulsory (Botswana Federation of Trade Unions, (BFTU) 2007:2, 4; DCDE, 2007:4). The main goal of the Basic Education Act was clustered around the afore-mentioned themes. To ensure the applicability, success and sustainability of its goal, the themes were submitted to the Ministry of Education’s (MoE) Policy Advisory Committee, and later to the NCE, who transformed them into the RNPE of 1994 (World Data on Education, 2006:3).
The stipulations of the Basic Education Act pertaining to learner dropout, are described below under the following four themes, namely
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Policy formulation. It covers the areas of the provision and development of pre-primary
education, non-formal education and special education, as well as free and compulsory basic education. This entails ensuring that basic education is accessible to all.
Another theme was to improve the quality of education through the curriculum content and its delivery, pre- and in-service teacher training, as well as by means of the teachers’ working conditions. This theme was hampered by the lack of funds, which could be contributing to learner dropout (cf. 1.3.3 and 1.3.5).
School management and administration focused on the adaptation of infrastructure,
mechanical and technological equipment, other learning material, as well as the better training of school administrators. The findings of the Division of Special Education (DSE) (2001:3) revealed a lack of equipment and staff, which could also be causing the dropout of the learners.
Building partnerships with the private sector, non-governmental organisations, and communities, is the fourth theme, and it implies sharing the cost of financing education. The
theme is being implemented through involving communities in the community junior secondary schools, and through giving grants to the churches and the non-governmental organisations towards educating special-needs learners (NCE, 1993:58-59; World Data on Education, 2006:3-4).
The themes described above are relevant to the research problem of learner dropout because they are aimed at combating dropout. It is important to have knowledge of the above themes because the implementation of the Basic Education Act on the ground level does not always use the above-prescribed themes (cf. 1.3.3), which could be contributing to learner dropout. The dropout statistics displayed in the tables in Chapter 1 proved the severity of learner dropout (cf. 1.2.2) in the country and the research region, despite the afore-named themes.
The above argument will be further discussed below (cf. 3.11.1 and 3.11.3).
In the sections that follow the developmental stages of the Education Acts and Policies are discussed. The current study is investigating if the role of the Education Acts and Policies in
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the provision of education is linked to learner dropout. This makes it important to examine how the Acts and Policies are enacted and formulated.