Education in the Two Districts

4.10.2.1. Educational Institutions

There is a gap in terms of educational service provision between Ponkujaku and Aumisoe. The former has far fewer institutions, which are also much less well established. This reflects the country‟s history in that formal education started in the coastal areas and

expanded northwards. As of the academic year 2007/08, in Ponkujaku there were 21 public kindergartens (KGs), 65 primary schools, and nine junior secondary schools (JSSs). Apart from three KGs, there are no private educational institutions in Ponkujaku. The only (public) senior secondary school (SSS) located in Ponkujaku town is a „community‟ day school, which has no dormitories or canteen and enrols mainly local children.

On the other hand, in Aumisoe private schools are much more common. As of the same academic year, there were 63 public KGs, 94 primary schools and 46 JSSs; and 24 private KGs, 22 primary schools and seven JSSs. There are two (public) SSSs: one boarding school in Aumisoe town and a „community‟ day school in the second biggest town.

Schools in Ponkujaku have been established for a much shorter period of time than those in Aumisoe. In Ponkujaku, only 1 primary school had been established before independence in 1957, while 10 (public) primary schools and 2 JSSs had been built by the same date in Aumisoe. Indeed, educational institutions are still being established in Ponkujaku, unlike in

Aumisoe, where the majority of basic schools had been built by the 1980s. In Ponkujaku, 45 (69.2%) primary schools were established after 1990, 29 (44.6%) of which were built after 2000; while only 17 (18.1%) of today‟s primary schools in Aumisoe had yet to be built by 1990. Similarly, six JSSs (66.7%) out of nine were built after 2000 in Ponkujaku, whose two oldest JSSs were only established in 1987; while only 11 out of 46 JSSs (23.9%) were established after 2000 in Aumisoe.

In both districts, there are off-road basic schools located in the „bush‟ (in circuit

supervisors‟ parlance). Twenty-seven primary schools (41.5%) in Ponkujaku and seven primary schools (7.4%) in Aumisoe fall into this category, although there are no JSSs similarly located in either district (table 13). However, certain areas in Ponkujaku, such as one of circuits, are not served by regular public transport. If schools that cannot be reached by public transport are considered to be bush schools, in Ponkujaku District, 45 primary schools (69.2%) and 2 JSSs (22.2%) are located in the „bush‟.

Table 13 Location of (public) basic schools

Total number

Town Rural Bush

N % N % N % Ponkujaku Primary 65 7 10.8 31 47.8 27 41.5 JSS 9 4 44.4 5 55.5 0 0.0 Aumisoe Primary 94 18 19.1 69 73.4 7 7.4 JSS 46 14 30.4 32 69.6 0 0.0 Source: school census 2007/08, conducted at district level.

Moreover, since the area of Ponkujaku is six times that of Aumisoe and there are fewer schools in the former than in the latter, basic schools in Ponkujaku are far more scattered and remoteness may be a much bigger challenge. In addition, owing to a shorter history of formal education and the vast expanses of Ponkujaku, such education might still be a new concept to communities in this district.

4.10.2.2. Basic Education Statistics 4.10.2.2.1. Enrolment

In general, in accordance with the national trend, enrolment at basic level is on the rise in both districts: enrolment growth rates at primary level from 2005/06 to 2007/08 are 24.0%

and 1.8% in Ponkujaku and Aumisoe respectively (table 14). Similarly, those at JSS level are 7.0% in Ponkujaku and 5.0% in Aumisoe (table 15). On the other hand, both districts have lower female enrolment compared to national statistics − Education Information Management System (EMIS) based on annual school census.

Table 14 Enrolment and pupil teacher ratio at primary level

Ponkujaku Aumisoe National Total Female % PTR Total Female % PTR Total Female % PTR 2005/06 8,220 44.3 45:1 18,789 46.9 35:1 2,647,617 48.4 38:1 2006/07 8,858 42.8 32:1 18,203 46.9 35:1 2,824,407 48.4 33:1 2007/08 10,817 n/a 35:1 19,130 n/a 34:1 n/a n/a n/a n/a = not available.

Source: EMIS 2005/06 and 2006/7; school censuses 2007/08 conducted at district level.

Table 15 Enrolment and pupil teacher ratio at JSS level

Ponkujaku Aumisoe National Total Female % PTR Total Female % PTR Total Female % PTR 2005/06 1,444 35.5 32 5,189 42.3 21 883,060 46.1 19 2006/07 1,177 38.4 18 5,627 43.2 16 952,151 46.1 18 2007/08 1,545 n/a 19 5,446 n/a 15 n/a n/a n/a n/a = not available.

Source: EMIS 2005/06 and 2006/7; school censuses 2007/08 conducted at district level.

4.10.2.2.2. Numbers of Teachers

Based on school censuses, table 16 shows the numbers of primary school teachers in the two districts from 2005/06 to 2007/08. There was a 70% increase in primary level teachers in Ponkujaku34 from 2005/06 to 2007/08, although absolute numbers of trained teachers dropped by half, from 65 in 2005/06 to 31 in 2007/8. As a result, the percentage of trained teachers at primary level in Ponkujaku declined from 37.4% in 2005/06 to 10.4% in 2007/08.

Officers explain that once trained teachers have served for a certain number of years, they apply for further study with pay, or for a transfer to another district or region. Teachers‟ observations are similar. A trained teacher in Ponkujaku said that, “teachers do not come. If they come, they do not stay long. Once they leave, [there is] no replacement.” At the same time, greater numbers of trained teachers are posted to JSSs, as table 17 shows.

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Ponkujaku District Education Office provides somewhat different figures. According to its performance

On the other hand, in Aumisoe its school census data indicates that the number of primary level teachers35 and the percentage of trained teachers were consistent over the same years.

The proportion of female primary school teachers did not change from 2005/06 to 2007/08: approximately 5% in Ponkujaku and 24% in Aumisoe.

Table 16 Numbers of primary school teachers

Ponkujaku Aumisoe Male Female Total % TT % F Male Female Total % TT % F TT UT TT UT TT UT TT UT 2005/06 65 111 3 3 182 37.4 3.3 144 261 53 77 535 36.8 24.3 2006/07 63 192 6 14 275 25.1 7.3 157 252 53 73 535 39.3 23.6 2007/08 31 266 1 11 309 10.4 3.9 143 285 58 72 558 36.0 23.3 TT=trained teacher, UT=untrained teacher, F=female teacher.

Source: EMIS 2005/06 and 2006/7; school censuses 2007/08 conducted at district level.

In both districts, the number of JSS teachers increased from 2005/06 to 2007/08 − an 84.4% rise in Ponkujaku and a 44.9% rise in Aumisoe (table 17). Although four JSSs in Ponkujaku and seven JSSs in Aumisoe were established after 2004, the trend for posting teachers to JSSs rather than primary schools seems to have intensified. However, the proportion of trained teachers remained constant over the same period, at the much higher rate of 50 to 67%, compared to that of primary level teachers. Male teachers dominated at JSS level as well.

Table 17 Number of JSS teachers

Ponkujaku Aumisoe Male Female Total % TT % F Male Female Total % TT % F TT UT TT UT TT UT TT UT 2005/06 26 15 2 2 45 62.2 8.9 118 110 19 7 254 53.9 10.2 2006/07 32 28 5 0 65 56.9 7.7 150 101 28 9 288 61.8 12.8 2007/08 51 28 4 0 83 66.3 4.8 143 163 43 19 368 50.5 16.8 TT=trained teacher, UT=untrained teacher, F=female teacher.

Source: EMIS 2005/06 and 2006/7; school censuses 2007/08 conducted at district level.

Schools in Ponkujaku and Aumisoe do not seem to be attractive postings for trained teachers, with lower numbers of such staff than even the average for „deprived‟ districts

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Similar to the case of Ponkujaku, Aumisoe DEO provides contrary figures in its Performance Monitoring

Report 2007, stating that the number of primary school teachers increased from 654 in 2005/06 to 965 in

2006/07, but dropped to 558 in 2007/08. Officers attribute this trend partially to the UTDBE programme, which encouraged people to enter the teaching profession; but later, due to financial difficulties and other kinds of hardship, many of them dropped out of their courses and subsequently left teaching.

(table 18). The trend whereby the percentage of trained teachers at basic school in „deprived‟ districts continues to decline36

, as indicated in Education Sector Performance Report 2007 (MoESS 2007a p43) , is particularly serious at primary level in Ponkujaku. This suggests that not all „deprived‟ districts are the same: „deprived‟ districts in a „deprived‟ region with more pronounced rural and „bush‟ characteristics may deteriorate even more if the issue is not addressed.

Table 18 Percentage of public trained teachers at primary and JSS level (2006/07)

National Deprived Ponkujaku Aumisoe Primary 62.1* 42.8** 25.1* 39.3* JSS 77.2* 64.2** 56.9* 61.8* Source: *EMIS 2006/07; ** Education Sector Performance Report 2007.

4.10.2.2.3. Teachers‟ Categories

In both districts, basic school teachers come from diverse backgrounds in terms of both their qualifications and their affiliations − who pays their salaries. Of 309 primary level teachers in Ponkujaku, the majority are Youth Employment Programme (YEP) teachers (42.4%), followed by pupil teachers (41.1%) and trained teachers (10.4%). There is one National Service Scheme (NSS) teacher (0.3%) at primary level. Of 83 JSS teachers in Ponkujaku, 66.3% are trained, followed by NSS teachers (14.5%), YEP teachers (9.6%),

Figure 1 Categories of basic school teacher in Ponkujaku by percentage

Primary JSS Trained, 10.4 Pupil T, 41.1 NSS, 0.3 Retired, 0.0 YEP, 42.4 Volunteer, 5.8 Trained, 66.3 Pupil T, 6.0 NSS, 14.5 Retired, 0.0 YEP, 9.6 Volunteer, 3.6

Source: school censuses 2007/08.

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The percentage of trained teachers at primary level declined from approximately 56% in 2003/04 to 42.8% in 2006/07. Similarly, that at JSS level fell from about 76% in 2003/04 to 64.2% in 2006/07.

pupil teachers (6.0%) and volunteer teachers (3.6%). While the majority of the teaching force at primary level comprises pupil and YEP teachers, that at JSS consists of trained and NSS teachers (see figure 1).

On the other hand, in Aumisoe of 558 primary level teachers, trained teachers and pupil teachers each make up one third of the total, while the 72 YEP teachers represent 12.9% − a third of this type of teacher‟s representation in Ponkujaku. As in Ponkujaku, of the 368 JSS teachers in Aumisoe, trained teachers and NSS teachers are the main teaching force, at 50.5% and 16.3% respectively. However unlike Ponkujaku, Aumisoe has re-employed retired teachers on one-year contract basis at both levels (see figure 2).

Figure 2 Categories of basic school teacher in Aumisoe by percentage

Primary JSS Trained, 36.0 Pupil T, 31.9 NSS, 2.2 Retired, 2.3 YEP, 12.9 Volunteer, 14.7 Trained, 50.5 Pupil T, 14.9 NSS, 16.3 Retired, 2.2 YEP, 7.1 Volunteer, 9.0

Source: school censuses 2007/08.

With the introduction of the YEP in 2006, some volunteer teachers have been absorbed into the initiative. However, volunteer teachers remain key players in service delivery. For example, in Aumisoe almost one in 6 primary level teachers (15.7%) and one in 10 JSS teachers (9.8%) is a volunteer and they still outnumber YEP teachers. Nevertheless, the majority are untrained and do not have job security as their contracts are short-term. Indeed, volunteer teachers in particular seldom have financial security. Fewer trained teachers in a district means that it lacks continuity and consistency.

4.10.2.3. Supervision System

District, the smallest administrative unit, is divided into smaller units, circuits, for

educational management purposes. A circuit supervisor (CS) is assigned to each circuit to be in charge of its basic schools. Ponkujaku and Aumisoe District have six and eight circuits respectively. A CS in Ponkujaku is in charge of 8 to 15 primary schools, with an average 10.8; and 1 or 2 JSSs, with an average 1.5. Correspondingly, a CS in Aumisoe covers 7 to 15 primary schools, with an average 11.8; and 3 to 10 JSSs, with an average 5.8. On average, CS in Aumisoe is in charge of more schools, but in smaller physical area.

CSs have off-road motorbikes for their supervision work, which they have bought at reduced cost but in instalments. They are expected to do maintenance for their motorbikes as their possessions, while fuel is provided by the DEO.

4.11. Conclusion

A mixed-methods approach was chosen in order to take advantage of both quantitative and qualitative strategies. The qualitative aspect of research was to be emphasised for an in- depth understanding of teachers‟ lives in terms of the overall concern of the study – teachers‟ social and professional experiences, their perceptions and attitudes. Adopting a case study strategy, this research intends to provide “a unique example of real people in real situations, enabling readers to understand ideas more clearly than simply by presenting them with abstract theories or principles” (Cohen et. al. 2000 p181). Quantitative data was also crucial in order to provide teachers‟ profiles and reveal their general views, perceptions and levels of job satisfaction. The choice of cases was made by means of a process of selection from regional to school level and was carried out rationally. The cases for ethnographic study were carefully and intentionally selected to maximise findings from them.

The two agriculture-based „deprived‟ districts are different not only geographically and socio-culturally but also the degree of remoteness and development. As Ponkujaku has only two towns, where the higher percentage of people live than Aumisoe, 30% against 20%, and more schools in “bush”, there seems to be a bigger contrast between town and rural in

Ponkujaku. Ponkujaku may be less desirable for teachers, especially non-natives, if they have urban preference for posting. On the other hand, these differences exist within a district.

In the next four chapters, how these environments affect teachers‟ motivation is explored. To begin with, teachers‟ characteristics, job satisfactions and perceptions are analysed in chapter 5. This provides a wider picture of teachers‟ views. Chapter 6 describes teachers‟ lives through the analysis of five case studies from the two „deprived‟ districts. Chapter 7 examines the factors that affect teacher motivation at the micro-level, using cross-case analysis. Then chapter 8 discusses the factors that affect teacher motivation at the macro- level, focusing on policy and teacher management.