Educational and Governmental Perspectives

The association between HE, employability and links to the economy have existed for some time. The Robbins Report in 1963 identified the aims of HE and this included reference to the development of skills and its contribution to the distribution of labour (Yorke, 2006). This association links the findings of the Dearing Report (NCIHE, 1997) which asserts the crucial role which HE makes to the global competitiveness and the economy. The outcome of this report is considered by Yorke (2006, p. 3) who suggests “The employability of graduates has become an aim that governments around the world have, to varying extents, imposed on national higher education systems”. The link between educational and governmental perspectives is evident within this statement. Yorke (2006, p. 3) further signifies that this in turn “reflects an acceptance of human capital theory” and the willingness for governments to accept such theories in order to increase productivity of the workforce. The construct of human capital is explored further within this chapter and closely aligns with the skills and knowledge approach to employability.

Tomlinson (2017, p. 1) asserts that the “very term ‘graduate employability’ has become synonymous with the ways in which the relationship between higher

education and the economy is now understood”. Tomlinson continues to suggest that it appears widely accepted that HE plays an integral part in the prosperity of the economy, graduates being “positioned as key players on the economic stage whose role and input in the labour market is of huge significance” (2017, p. 2). Part-time students are arguably best placed to contribute to this further, particularly if already working and looking to develop their knowledge and skills. This further reinforces the need to consider part-time students and the development of their employability

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due to the potential benefits such students have on the wider economy.

Employability strategies and frameworks developed within HE arguably need to be based on a separate model for part-time students in order to fulfil their individual needs and consider the diversity which can exist amongst such learners.

The viewpoint put forward by Tomlinson is not new, the Dearing Report in 1997 emphasised the requirements for HE to develop employability skills amongst students to improve their employability on graduation (Dearing, 1997). Tomlinson (2017, p. 2) links this to the “economic purpose of universities” and makes the point that many career services within HE are being developed into both employability and careers units and seek to “develop institutional strategies that enhance the employment outcomes of their graduates” (2017, p. 2). Cole and Tibby (2013) previously suggested a framework to facilitate HE providers in the development of such strategies but reference to part-time students is largely overlooked.

HEIs arguably need to determine if their approaches to employability sufficiently consider the diverse nature of part-time learners or as Butcher (2015) previously indicated, such learners are at risk of effectively being “shoe-horned and side-lined” alongside their full-time counterparts. The research by Butcher (2015) considers the challenges faced by part-time students and their experience within HE. Graduate employability is essentially part of this experience and is subsequently a potential challenge that part-time students face, thus are HE providers identifying suitable strategies for all learners, regardless of mode of study? Yorke (2006, p. 3) has previously asserted that employability “is not merely an attribute of the new graduate. It needs to be continuously refreshed through a person’s working life”. Yorke (2006) further recognises that there can be an assumption that when

considering employability, we tend to think of graduates as young people. Yorke (2006) argues that by adopting this perception we are not taking into the account the potential which mature graduates could offer particularly in terms of life-experience. Butcher (2015) also posits that in order to develop social capital and widening

participation and social mobility, policies surrounding education need to extend to mature and part-time students. This further reinforces the need to take into account the requirements of such students when developing institutional strategies.

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Yorke (2006) suggests HE is evidently not just about preparing graduates for the world of work but also plays a key in lifelong learning. Yorke (2006, p. 5) cites the example that HE also further educates “the middle manager so that he or she can manage more effectively, in ‘upskilling’ the teacher or process worker, facilitating the development of active citizenship, and so on”. This further demonstrates the link between HE and part-time students who may be returning to study to develop, to upskill for example, or to seek alternative employment. HE and its association with employability is therefore not just about gaining the initial acquisition of employment but relates also to maintaining and obtaining new employment if desired as

previously claimed by Hillage and Pollard (1998).

Tomlinson (2017, p. 2) further highlights the existence of a relationship between the economy and HE and it association with graduate employability and makes the point that “as recipients of higher-level knowledge and training, graduates are often depicted as ‘knowledge workers’ who will add considerable economic value through the application of their advanced skills and knowledge”. It is however further

recognised by Tomlinson that career paths are less stable even for knowledge workers due to external factors such as “organisational restructuring, company divestment to cheaper production locations and continued downsizing of professional core

workers”. This concept is particularly relevant for part-time students who may be seeking to develop their employability skills as they recognise that they need to respond to changes within the economy and organisational structures. HE providers therefore not only need to factor into the equation the challenging political landscape when developing their institutional strategies and employability agendas, but they also need to consider the needs of all students, regardless of mode and programme of study. This thereby links to pedagogical approaches and purpose of this study to determine how existing conceptualisations are utilised to support and develop part- time programmes of study.

In terms of the link between HE and the labour market Cai, (2013, p. 457) argues “one of the most basic functions of education is to cultivate people to meet the needs of the labour market”. Cai (2013) further acknowledges that since the 1960s several studies consider the link between employment and education which is related to

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Becker’s and Schultz theories of human capital in the 1960s or the later theories in the 1970s by Spence; Stiglitz or Arrow who refer to screening models, the focus of such studies primarily being measured on the first destination of employment after graduation (Cai, 2013).

Nilsson (2017, p. 70) further asserts the connection between HE and the labour market stating, “employability has become a central concept in discussions of the relationship between higher education and the world of work and has acquired increasing prominence in both national and international political debates and academic papers in various disciplines over the last 20 years. The concept has also become one of the cornerstones of labour market policies as well as educational and employment strategies in Europe”. The value of HE to the labour market is therefore argued in extant studies and for those part-time students who are already working, they are arguably meeting some of the needs of the labour market. How HEIs can enhance this contribution further in terms of the curriculum design and career enhancement opportunities for part-time students is considered further in this study.

Studies by both Cai (2013) and Nilsson (2017) offer perspectives on the educational and governmental perspectives of employability. The importance of employability and its link to the labour market is reinforced further in the work of Kovalenko and Mortelmans, (2014) who identify the link between employability and economic competitiveness alongside improving rates of employment in developed countries. Davey and Tucker (2010) acknowledge the drive for students to develop their employability skills which is driven by the expectations of HEIs, employers and the government link this to initiatives such as Enterprise in Education in 1995 and the Dearing Report in 1997.

McQuaid et al. (2005) recognise employability as a useful concept to analyse both the urban and national labour markets for both the employed and unemployed but suggest that a skills and attributes approach is a potentially narrow supply-side perspective. A broader idea for people either seeking or changing employment is to consider a demand-side perspective and personal circumstances and other influencing factors which can affect employability within differing labour markets (McQuaid et al.,

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2005). However, as Yorke (2006, p. 4) points outs “The higher education system is subject to governmental steer, one form of which is to give an emphasis to the enhancement of the employability of new graduates”. This perspective therefore appears to link more closely to the supply-side perspective commonly associated with a skills approach. This is therefore a potential criticism of the current approaches to employability where the focus appears to be on supply as opposed to demand. However, whilst demand will have an impact on employability, particularly if supply exceeds demand, one of the key performance indicators for HEIs is the employability status of graduates within six months of graduating. Therefore, regardless of demand, the supply side will continue as students’ progress through their education and hence why HEIs develop employability strategies and frameworks to enhance the

employability opportunities for its learners. This arguably includes all students regardless of mode or programme of study.

The approach to employability therefore is an important consideration for the HE provider particularly in terms of marketing the institution and attracting students to apply and engage with HE. The marketing of programmes is again relevant for all programmes and modes of study. In a bid to attract part-time learners and develop their employability, an HEI should arguably be able to demonstrate their approach to support and develop a part-time learner. This again links to the aim of this thesis, particularly in terms of the contribution this study can make to the development of a model for use by part-time students to consider their individual needs and areas for development. The model developed thereby offers a potential marketing tool for HEIs to differentiate part-time students from learners on full-time programmes. Layer (2004, p. 12) suggests HE can contribute to improving graduate employability through securing “curriculum change to ensure that the preparation for employment is embedded within the course for all students”. This further supports the need to consider all students and the design of the curriculum is a key feature to facilitate this. Pedagogic frameworks therefore provide an opportunity to design and develop the curriculum to enhance the career readiness and employability of its learners, regardless of mode of study. Layer (2004) suggests there has been a significant development in the curriculum from the late 1980s and this stemmed partly from the Enterprise in Higher Education (EHE) Initiative. This was created “to ensure greater employability amongst graduates and to meet the changing needs of the

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world of work” through the “development of key skills within the curriculum” (Layer, 2004 p. 16). Based on this, the design of the curriculum and a suitable framework is a good starting point to consider the general requirements of part-time students.

Frameworks which can be utilised in the development of the curriculum exist such as that offered by Cole and Tibby (2013) where HEIs are afforded the opportunity to consider their individual strategies and develop action plans. However, given the diverse nature of part-time students, in reality how do they fit within the current conceptualisations in terms of educational and government perspectives and the existing conceptual and empirical tested models, which already exist and are explored further within this study?