Educational change

According to Fullan (2007) educational change is a complex proposition involving many issues such as economics, culture, politics and legislation. Changing and reforming education at all levels are always challenging tasks, and understanding and coping with rapid change in the world is a major challenge for educational change. Fullan (2007) argued that educational change is not a single entity, and innovation is multidimensional. In his educational change theory, which has been developed and revised for three decades, Fullan comprehensively discusses factors affecting educational change at all levels, from national governments to learners. His theory emphasises social factors in the change process. As he stated, “educational change is technically simple and socially complex” (Fullan, 2007, p.84).

43 Educational change environment

My research aims to investigate factors affecting the development of DLE in the Vietnamese environment. The development of DLE was considered as an educational change process, and it occurred within the Vietnamese environment. Before discussing factors affecting the educational change process, and in order to understand the change environment, an explanation is provided (a) of a general model illustrating the educational change environment in which a new innovation is introduced and adopted, and (b) factors affecting the change process being examined in this study. Figure 2, which presents a model of the LIM educational change environment, was adapted from Ellsworth's model (2000).

Figure 2: The LIM educational change environment adapted from Ellsworth (2000, p. 27)

In this model, change agents are expected to introduce or deliver a new educational programme to intended adopters such as individuals or organisations. The change process is used to set up a channel through the LIM educational change environment for the change agents to introduce DLE to the intended adopters. Nevertheless, various factors exist in the environment which might facilitate the change process, or might restrict it. To investigate the factors affecting this particular change process it is necessary to understand the situation in the LIM environment in the Vietnamese context. Ellsworth (2000) drew a general view of the educational change environment. However, he did not indicate what factors in the environment may be affecting the educational change. Rather he suggested using Fullan’s educational change theory as a “change toolbox” for investigating the environment of educational change.

44

Fullan (2007) contended that all stakeholders, from governments to students, are affected by educational change. Stakeholders could be individuals from inside or outside an organisation or a system that want to change or are being pressured to change.

Change process in education change

To investigate the development of DLE in Vietnam as a change process in LIM education I have focused on the broad phases of the change process suggested by Fullan (2007). According to Fullan, there are three phases in the educational change process: initiation, implementation and institutionalisation. Figure 3 presents these phases in the change process model.

Figure 3: The change process

(Fullan, 2007, p. 66)

Phase 1: Initiation. In this phase of the process a decision to adopt or proceed with change is made. Figure 4 below presents Fullan’s model of factors affecting the initiation phase.

Phase 2: Implementation. This phase involves the first experiences of attempting to put an idea or reform into practice. Figure 5 below presents Fullan’s model of factors affecting the implementation phase.

Phase 3: Institutionalisation. This is the last phase of the change process where the idea or reform is used widely in practice (Fullan, 2007, p. 65). Fullan viewed

OUTCOMES:  Student learning  Organisation Capacity Implementation In iti a tio n Institutionalisation

45 this phase as occurring after the implementation phase. In my research, this phase was not examined because it is a future phase of DLE development in Vietnam. The results of my research hopefully will be used for the institutionalisation phase – for developing and offering DLE programmes in Vietnam (see Section 9.2).

Fullan (2007) noted that numerous factors operate at each phase. These factors need to be explored in the whole change process. He said that the process itself is not linear, but is "one in which events at one phase can feed back to alter decisions made at previous stages which then work their way through in a continuous interactive way" (p. 67). Thus what occurs in one phase can affect decisions made in earlier phases and alter the direction of change. This can have major implications when considering the various phases in the change process.

Factors affecting initiation

Fullan (2007) stated that “initiation is the process leading up to and including the decision to proceed with implementation” (p. 69). Initiation plays an important role in the decision making of educational change. Fullan emphasised that exploring the factors affecting this phase is necessary to assist decision making for change. Figure 4 present the factors affecting the initiation phase in educational change.

Figure 4: Factors affecting initiation

46

Existence and quality of innovations: While Rogers (2003) provided a generic definition

for innovation, Fullan (2007) was interested in innovations in education, which he says are new ideas, technologies or educational programmes introduced to practice. In my research, the introduction and development of DLE was considered an innovation in Vietnamese LIM education because in different ways DLE fits all aspects of Fullan’s definition – it consists of new ideas, requires the use of new technologies, and is a new educational programme. The literature review shows that the introduction of DLE began more than two decades ago both in developing and developed countries; it also shows that there has been a significant increase in the number of DLE programmes and universities offering DLE programmes. However, the introduction of DLE in Vietnam has lagged behind most other countries.

Access to innovation: This factor focuses on access to information about an innovation

(Fullan, 2007). What can stakeholders and others find out about DLE? Leaders, LIM practitioners, LIM educators and other stakeholders expect to have opportunities to access information about DLE, both inside and outside the education system, through conferences, online databases, journals, research papers, and so on. Access to information about DLE was considered to be a factor that could reduce the complexity of DLE and enhance the clarity of it.

Advocacy from central administration: This factor relates to the support of leadership for

change in an educational system. In this study, the advocacy and leadership of LIM educational institutions from rectors or deans were considered as a factor that might affect the introduction and development of DLE in Vietnam.

Teacher advocacy: Teachers can be stakeholders and can play an important role in

educational change. In this research, the advocacy of LIM lecturers was considered as a potential factor affecting the introduction and development of DLE.

Community pressure, support or apathy: This factor relates to the role and effects of

society, the governing organisations and the LIM profession on educational change. In my research, LIM associations and the Vietnamese society, which consist of social and cultural values, were considered to be potential factors affecting DLE’s introduction and development.

47

Problem-solving and bureaucratic orientation: This factor focuses on the action of

decision-makers or leaders in terms of their comprehending the value of an innovation that will be introduced to an educational system. There is a question that needs to be answered: what do the decision-makers perceive as the value of the change?

Change agents: This factor focuses on stakeholders who play roles as change agents in

educational change. They might be individuals or organisations. Fullan (2007) emphasised that change agents or facilitators play an important part in initiating change projects. Change agents can appear at the local level or national level, and be people in an educational system (internal environment) or outside of the system (external environment). In order to identify change agents involved in DLE development in Vietnam, I used the criteria for change agents suggested by Rogers (2003). He considered change agents to be individuals or organisations that link a change agency with potential adopters of an innovation. I discuss change agents in detail in Section 3.1.4.

Factors affecting implementation

The second phase of the educational change process is implementation. According to Fullan (2007) implementing a new idea into practice is a complex process which involves many factors. Fullan identified nine critical factors affecting the implementation phase. The factors are grouped into three main categories: characteristics of change; local characteristics; and, external factors. Figure 5 presents the broad contextual factors that contributed to the model that I constructed to explore the development of DLE in Vietnam.

Figure 5: Interactive factors affecting implementation (Fullan, 2007, p. 72) A. Characteristics of change 1. Need 2. Clarity 3. Complexity 4. Quality/Practicality B. Local characteristics 5. District 6. Community 7. Principal 8. Teacher IMPLEMENTATION B. External factors 9. Government and other agencies

48

Characteristics of change (need, clarity, complexity and quality/practicality).

This category focuses on evaluating the characteristics of an innovation (which in this study is DLE) which affect whether its implementation is successful and adopted into practice.

The first characteristic is perceived need. Fullan (2007) said that one of the reasons that educational change efforts fail is because stakeholders do not address “what are perceived to be priority needs” (p. 88). The success of introducing educational innovations relies heavily on identifying and prioritising the needs of the stakeholders who will be involved in the change process. According to Fullan, educational needs not only need to be identified, they also need to be formally recognised (p. 88). This characteristic suggested that the identification and recognition of the needs for DLE of LIM stakeholders was a potential factor affecting DLE development.

The second characteristic is the perceived clarity. Fullan (2007, p. 89) contended that the goals of the innovation and the means of its implementation must be clear for the successful implementation of an educational innovation. Thus, the perceived clarity of the goals of DLE and the means of its implementation was considered to be a potential factor related to the development of DLE in Vietnam.

Complexity is about the difficulty and extent of change, and therefore the knowledge and

skill required to put the change into practice. Rogers (2003) maintained that when an innovation is perceived as being complex its implementation will be perceived as difficult, and therefore it will be less likely that it will be adopted. With regard to the DLE implementation, this factor was considered to be related to the skills required, the beliefs of individuals, teaching strategies, and the use of required materials by LIM educators and LIM practitioners.

The last characteristic is the perceived quality and practicality of the innovation, which according to Fullan (2007), relates not only to the perceived value of the innovation but also to the availability of resources for and feasibility of implementing the innovation.

49 Local characteristics (district, community, principal, and teacher) and external factors (government and other agencies)

Fullan (2007) discussed the roles of local and external stakeholders of educational change. They are the school district, community, principals, teachers, students, government and

other agencies. In a more recent work Fullan (2010) emphasised that the cooperation of

these stakeholders makes reform and change in education become possible. Sharing the same perspective, and focusing on stakeholders who drive changes in LIM education, Fisher et al. (2005) found that change in LIM professional education needs a full and balanced contribution from stakeholders, including individuals, educators, organisations and professional bodies. Using Fullan's stakeholders as a base, the possible stakeholders in my study are identified in Table 2: Possible stakeholders of DLE development.

Teachers play an important role in educational change efforts. After spending a long time

observing changes in education, Fullan (2007) stated that “educational change depends on what teachers do and think” (p. 115). Teachers are catalysts affecting the speed of the change process in education, so if teachers do not support educational change it will not be successful. In my study, lecturers who teach in LIM schools were identified as the teachers.

Table 2: Possible stakeholders of DLE development

Fullan’s stakeholders The possible stakeholders in the study

Teachers Lecturers involved in DLE programmes

Students Learners: LIM students and LIM practitioners Principals Leaders: deans of LIM schools, and rectors of

universities Government and other

agencies

The Vietnamese government and its policies, NGOs and international LIM organisations.

Community LIM community and the professional associations School district University administration

Because Fullan (2007) focussed on educational change in schools, he identified principals as important stakeholders. He considered principals to be the leaders within the schools,

50

and stated that the role of leaders is crucial in the educational change process. Fullan (2007) highlighted the institutional head’s role in educational change in terms of encouraging staff to change and in providing time and resources for change. When examining leadership and the roles of leaders in universities, Green and Eckel (2010) found that making changes in educational institutions to meet the demands of governments, social agencies, industry and citizens is an important part of the role of university leaders. My research focusses on LIM education which is at the tertiary level, therefore I identified the key educational leaders in Vietnam as deans of LIM programmes and rectors of the universities in which the programmes are situated.

The third set of stakeholders are the learners. Fullan (2007, p. 151) stated that students not only are the potential beneficiaries of change, they are also “participants" in the change process. Because my study relates to DLE for the LIM profession as a whole in Vietnam, the potential for DLE to involve professional development also needed to be taken into consideration. Therefore practitioners as well as students were considered to be learners for the purpose of this study.

Government and its management affect educational change. According to Fullan (2007)

the role of governments in educational change is to create an environment in which educational change occurs and its goals are achieved. In this study, the Vietnamese government departments with responsibility for educational policies and programmes, for the technological infrastructure, and for any other areas that could potentially influence the development and implementation of DLE were considered to be stakeholders.

External agencies are also among Fullan's stakeholders in educational change. They may

be organisations such as other universities and IT companies involved in educational change. In my research, I examined roles of these agencies in developing DLE in Vietnam. The selection of the stakeholders for my research is discussed in Section 4.4.

The other stakeholder is the professional community. Fisher et al. (2005) said that stakeholders such as librarians, educators, organisations and professional bodies cooperate to identify the new knowledge, skills and competencies of LIM practitioners. That cooperation enables LIM practitioners to prepare for their work more effectively in the changing digital environment, and to undertake new tasks. Individuals should be self- motivated to acquire new knowledge and skills and identify what knowledge and skills

51 they need for their work. In addition, educators who provide education services need to understand the educational needs of LIM practitioners and offer educational programmes which meet the demands of practitioners. Organisations such as libraries, information centres and universities offer opportunities for developing education and training, and connecting the suppliers (educators) to consumers (LIM practitioners), managers of LIM organisations and policy makers of government departments.

I chose Fullan’s educational change theory for my research because it provides a framework for conceptualising educational change and examining the environment in which it occurs. As discussed earlier, Fullan (2007) viewed educational change to be a three-phase process which is affected by a range of factors including the various stakeholders. I concluded that this theory was applicable because my research was being carried out within the changing and evolving education environment in Vietnam where change was occurring in all aspects of education: objectives, curricula, teaching methods, subject content and policies. Even though the Ministry of Information and Communication had a master plan for the development of the LIM field, and scholars, scientists and managers were discussing reforms in LIM education, I observed that DLE, as a new innovation, appeared to be stalled in a transition between the initiation and the implementation phases. Thus, the research was aimed at examining the environment to understand the current status of DLE development, and investigating the factors that were acting as barriers to and enablers for its development in the context of Vietnam. To achieve this aim, Fullan’s educational change theory appeared to be highly suited to the task.