Educational and Pedagogical Elements

Today, tremendous amount of data, information and knowledge is stored in various forms using various media all around us. Every day, or even hour, and may be every second, knowledge is being constructed, stored, exchanged between people and transformed from one form to another. The exchange of knowledge between different people/persons is done through the process of teaching and learning. With the wide spread of Internet, the process is even done faster and on wider scale than it used to. As the teaching/learning process is conducted mainly in the traditional way in a traditional classroom setting, this would put huge burden on both teacher and learner alike in conveying or acquiring knowledge in the new era. Teachers face difficulties ―teaching‖ everything needed and learners find it hard ‗learning‘ everything needed, within the traditional educational settings in higher education. ―Education is undergoing a theoretical shift from programmed learning and information processing approaches to knowledge building and transfer‖ (Almala, 2005). Many educational institutions as well as other firms and organizations are utilizing a non-traditional way

of teaching and learning, either through DE or through e-learning setting. It is anticipated that within 5 years [as of 2002] most delivery of materials in higher education will be in the middle of the spectrum that represent the transition from traditional to e-learning delivery (Forman, 2002).

2.6.2.2.1 Learning Styles and Learning Theories

According to Cantoni, Cellario & Porta (2004), people differ in how they assemble knowledge, ―(e.g. bottom-up vs. top-down approaches, abstraction vs. exemplification, freedom vs. guidance)‖ (Cantoni, Cellario & Porta 2004). There are three categories of learning styles that learner may prefer to work under ―visual… auditory…and kinesthetic‖ (Cantoni, Cellario & Porta 2004). Educators should recognize the existence of different learning styles and that learners would adopt different ones. According to Tham & Werner (2005), online educators should recognize the connection between culture and learning styles. Paul Butler, chief executive officer of KnowledgePool, quoted in Gunasekaran, McNeil, and Shaul (2002), says: ―By suiting students‘ personalities and providing the motivation inherent to their learning styles, we believe that students are more likely to utilize, retain and seek additional learning…‖. ‗Insights‘ defines four psychological styles, which are linked to learning styles each: ―1- Cool blue … , 2- Fiery red … , 3- Earth green … , 4- Sunshine yellow … ‖ (Gunasekaran, McNeil, and Shaul, 2002).

As to what approach or theory learners should adopt or follow, two main theories/schools of thoughts dominate the discussion on learning; constructivism and objectivist/behaviorism. Advocates of both argue in favor of the respective theory, claiming that it is more suitable for learning. People concerned and involved in e- learning generally try to adopt one of the two for e-learning systems and environments. Theoretical foundations about learning and cognition must be taken into consideration for an efficient online learning environment be appropriately designed, which helps to

choose appropriate educational approach (Nunes & McPherson, 2003). According to the objectivist school of thought, ―concepts are considered external to the learner and received through a process of communication, which focuses on behaviour and its modifications, rather than on cognitive or mental processes that facilitate learning‖ (Nunes & McPherson, 2003). On the other hand, Constructivism theory describes the development of knowledge through learning as “a process of active construction of meanings in relation to the context and environment in which the learning takes place‖ (Nunes & McPherson, 2003). The nature of reality is a main characteristic distinguishing constructivism from other learning theories (Almala, 2005). Both theories argue for different objectives/goals of instructions and learning. ―The constructivist learning paradigm emphasizes that there is no single or objective reality ‗out there,‘ which the instructor must transmit to the learner. Rather, reality is constructed by the learner during the course of the learning process‖ (Almala, 2005). Additionally, constructivism argues that ―concept development and deep understanding‖ are the objectives, while behaviorist says that ―behaviors and skills‖ are the goals (Nunes & McPherson, 2003). Driscoll (2000) quoted by Almala (2006), ―summarizes the five major components of constructivism as being (1) a complex and relevant learning environment; (2) social negotiation; (3) multiple perspective and multiple modes of learning; (4) ownership in learning; and (5) self-awareness and knowledge construction‖ (Almala, 2006).

In their study; Tham & Werner (2005) quote Chickering and Gamson (1991) and Chickering and Ehrmann (1996) as saying that ―positive online-learning environments incorporates seven principles of good teaching; a) encouraging student-faculty contact, b) encouraging cooperation among students, c) encouraging active learning, d) giving prompt feedback, e) emphasizing time on task, f) communicating high expectations, and g) respecting diverse talents and ways of learning‖ (Tham & Werner, 2005).

2.6.2.2.2 Asynchronous/Synchronous Learning

The main distinction between the two words is the time element. Synchronous means at the same time, while Asynchronous means at different times. In the learning context, it means that teaching/learning either can happen at the same time – synchronous, or at different times – Asynchronous. This includes traditional learning (synchronous) which takes place at the same time, same place. The same classification holds true for e-learning (online learning) as well, i.e. synchronous and asynchronous. Chen et al (2004) quote other researchers saying that most important advantages of synchronous learning are immediate feedback and more motivation and obligation to participate. Latchman, Salzmann, Gillet & Kim (2001) propose a hybrid synchronous and asynchronous learning environment called Lectures on Demand in Asynchronous Learning Networks. The concept behind this is to offer lectures online and/or playing it later from the archive. Several tools are used to bring lecture live online [and even later as asynchronous]. Cognitively, there are seven activities involved: Lecture, Live demos, Individual readings, Written exercises, Virtual experiments, Real experiments, and Practical projects (Latchman et al, 2001). Another model was developed by Martyn (2003) where it is basically a hybrid of face-to-face with asynchronous learning consisting of Chat; E-mail; Online Quizzes; and Online Threaded Discussion. In trying to overcome traditional learning disadvantages, based on their literature review, using Internet, Chen et al (2004) developed a synchronous learning model, consisting mainly of five components: role, participant, venue, delivery and interaction. However, they conclude by quoting other researchers as saying that students‘ learning styles and teachers‘ teaching styles are important factors that need consideration to improve student‘ learning environment (Chen et al, 2004). In their work, Miller & Neal (2005) highlight some disadvantages of synchronous learning [they call it WBT] over

asynchronous (CBT) saying that student needs Internet access for WBT (synchronous) which can be costly, and prohibitive if a student is traveling or access is expensive.