Effect of Language on Information Processing

The role of language in cognitive processes has received extensive attention (Brysbaert, Fias, & Noël, 1998; Hunt & Agnoli, 1991; Kay & Kempton, 1984; Macchi & Bagassi, 2012; Macchi & Bagassi, 2012). Macchi and Bagassi (2012) have suggested that language and thought “share a unitary cognitive activity” (p. 54). It has also been suggested that retrieval of basic numbers in mathematics problem-solving episodes depends on auditory and verbal representations of the first or primary language (Dehaene, 1992). The idea that language and cognition are inter-related has been termed the “Whorfian hypothesis”. Although this thesis research does not address the Whorfian hypothesis with respect to the processing of numeric information, the role of language in acquisition, representation and retrieval of information needs to be briefly considered.

The debate on the influence of language on thought is based on variants of the Whorfian hypothesis on linguistic relativity or linguistic determinism. One form of the hypothesis suggests that language controls both thought and perception and a variant of the hypothesis asserts that language only influences, but does not

determine, thought (Hunt & Agnoli, 1991; Kay & Kempton, 1984). According to the latter perspective “the presence of a language structure facilitates or hinders

enrolled Chinese and English speaking participants in studies that showed that linguistic structures in the respective languages (the lexicon and the syntax) affected participants’ perception and memory of objects. Hunt and Agnoli (1991) argue that although perception may not be affected by language, memory is. Memory is derived from the direct record of the sensory information at the time an event is perceived, and an indirect record of how individuals linguistically describe the event to themselves; memory is affected because it is coded by language, and memory is important in information processing as shown in the following section.

Human’s cognitive processing is based on information available in the short- term memory, also known as working memory, and in the long term memory. Researchers suggest that to process information, people use one of the two systems, either an intuitive approach or an analytical one. These systems have been unified under the dual process theory (Evans, 2003; Sloman, 1996; Stanovich & West, 2002). More recently some models have emerged that incorporated the relationship

between language and thought into the dual process models (Evans & Frankish, 2009; Macchi & Bagassi, 2012). Broad characteristics of the intuitive and the analytic systems are described below.

The intuitive system is associative, holistic, automatic, and relatively quick with low cognitive demands. It is acquired through life-long personal experiences

and it is highly contextualized, whereby the reasoning processes are linked to the problem content (Evans, 2003; Klaczynski, 2001; Stanovich & West, 2002). Intuition helps individuals speed up the processing of mathematical concepts (Giardino, 2010). Intuition stems from experience and exposure to mathematical concepts and

processes, which contributes to the development of mathematical sense by generating knowledge. This knowledge is stored in the long term memory in the form of a schema. A schema has been defined as “a program which enables the individual to 1) record, process, control and mentally integrate information, and 2) react meaningfully and efficiently to the environmental stimuli” (Fischbein, 1999, p. 39). Schemas are working models and knowledge systems comprising of past information, behaviours and experiences (Anderson, 1984).

According to Hunt and Agnoli (1991), numerical schemas represent highly restricted schemas in that some numerical concepts and processes are not universal. The authors cite as an example the ease with which English speakers express the idea that if there are 49 men and 37 pairs of shoes, some men will have no shoes. Some languages like Pirahã discussed earlier have limited numbers and their speakers would have difficulties because 49 and 37 are not part of their number schemas (Gordon, 2004).

Intuitive processing of numbers involves tapping into an already existing program that contains all acquired numbers and number concepts. Since

mathematical intuition depends on background, knowledge and expertise,

individuals relying on intuition processing would be fast in task performance and comprehension of numeric information (Dehaene, 2009; Giardino, 2010).

In contrast, analytical processing is rule-bound, relatively slow, and controlled and it uses considerable cognitive resources and requires substantial mental effort (Chandler & Sweller, 1991; Evans, 2003; Sloman, 1996; Stanovich & West, 2002). Analytical processing is decontextualized, in that the underlying reasoning processes are uncoupled from the problem content (Stanovich & West, 1997). Ability to use analytical processing is acquired through cultural and formal training (Evans, 2003; Sloman, 1996; Stanovich & West, 2002). Compared to intuitive processing,

individuals who engage in analytical processing of numeric tasks would have slow performances and lack expertise in the domain (Giardino, 2010). Indeed, analytical processing is activated when an individual lacks the ability to solve a problem on the basis of prior knowledge from a similar situation (Anderson & Aydin, 2005;

Giardino, 2010). Analytical processing also occurs when individuals are faced with difficulties in the reasoning process, for instance, due to the level of difficulty in the task as well as when the purpose of information processing is deductive, such as

when drawing conclusions from a wide range of information sources. In such situations, more time and mental effort is required (Alter, Oppenheimer, Epley, & Eyre, 2007; Klaczynski, 2001).

Others argue the opposite: novices process information intuitively while experts process information analytically (Pretz, 2008). However, experts solve mathematical problems intuitively and novices solve mathematical problems

analytically. Fischbein (1987) posited that through intuition, experts “generally grasp the universality of a principle, of a relation, of a law, of an invariant, through a

particular reality" (p. 50).

As described earlier in this chapter, primary languages shape the number word system and play an important role in the acquisition of numeric concepts and numeric skills. However, numeracy or facility with numbers is also affected by personal factors, especially an individual’s confidence, or lack of it, to successfully engage in tasks involving numbers. Whereas individuals with greater confidence or mathematics self-efficacy are likely to perform well in numeric tasks, those with low mathematics self-efficacy may have anxiety towards mathematics which can affect their performance, as discussed below.