Effective learning and teaching environments

This section aims to describe the features of effective learning and teaching environments. There is a considerable body of literature, which has contributed to the design of effective learning and teaching environments.

How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School is a report edited by Bransford et al. (2000) who go a long way towards identifying a structure or a theoretical framework, based on research findings, for assisting educators and teachers in understanding how people learn and how to establish an effective learning and teaching environment in schools. Their report reviewed recent studies of many complex processes involved in human learning (Bridglall, 2001), and had been “the major catalyst over the past six years in informing the dialogue about transforming the learning environment for all” (Narum, 2004, p. 1). It demonstrated how to incorporate the insights from various studies on human development and processes of effective learning and teaching environments.

Bransford et al. (2000) produced a model, which summarises the literature and hence provides a structure for reviewing the literature. The framework is grounded in constructivist theory. It is based on four essential “perspectives” as Bransford et al. called them. Those authors also variously described them as attributes, principles,

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characteristics, components or features, and more specifically as the degree to which learning environments are: student-centred, knowledge-centred, assessment-centred and community-centred (see Figure ‎3.1).

Figure ‎3.1 Perspectives on learning environments (Bransford et al., 2000, p.134)

According to Bransford et al. (2000), these four perspectives need to be kept in balance for effective learning and need to be conceptualized as a system of interconnected components that mutually support one another. In other words, each of these features suggests a somewhat different focus, but at the same time, they are interrelated to help determine the effectiveness of instruction. The framework shows that learners, knowledge and assessment are surrounded by community because they are parts of the community and these aspects play an important role in forming the community (Shamatha, Peressini & Meymaris, 2004). The term 'community' is used so as to include “the classroom as a community, the school as a community, and the degree to which students, teachers, and administers feel connected to the larger community of homes, businesses, states, the nation, and even the world” (Bransford et al., 2000, p.145).

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According to Romeo (2006), the Bransford et al. (2000) design highlights interrelated perspectives for an effective learning environment and offers some basic principles that should be taken into account when teaching and learning, and all these are constructed around the four interrelated perspectives. The four perspectives can be used as lenses to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching and learning environments (Donovan & Bransford, 2005). The design framework assumes that learners are children even though it can be applied to adult learning as well (Donovan, Bransford & Pellegrino, 1999). The principles of the framework are embedded in research that focuses on science, mathematics and history at the primary school level (Donovan & Bransford, 2005).

In the following sections, I will use (borrow) their terms (i.e. learner-centred, knowledge-centred, assessment-centred and community-centred) to frame a discussion of the relevant broader literature as there is a considerable body of other literature which has contributed to the design of effective learning and teaching environments (Jonassen et al., 1999; Jonassen et al., 2008; Mestre, 2001; Newhouse, 2002b; Romeo, 2006; Sawyer, 2008; Shamatha et al., 2004), most of it from a constructivist viewpoint.

Student-centred

One of the important features of an effective learning environment is student- centred learning and the notion of active, engaged learning (Bransford et al., 2000; Romeo, 2006). Gunstone (1995) advocated student-centred learning and rejected the statement that “student-centred” is opposite of “teacher-controlled” (p. 18). He argued that student centred learning requires strong teacher control, which allows for flexibility in engaging students in classroom activities.

According to Bransford et al. (2000), effective education environments begin with what students bring to the school including cultural practices, skills, attitudes and beliefs, as well as knowledge of content. To support this and in line with constructivism, Romeo (2006) explains that students use their current knowledge to build new knowledge and teachers pay careful attention to the importance of building on the ideas and the pre-existing knowledge that students bring with them. Similarly,

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under the constructivist assumption, Sawyer (2008) asserts that students enter the classroom with half-formed ideas and misconceptions about how the world works; they do not enter the classroom as empty vessels, waiting to be filled. Romeo (2006) argues that students may bring misconceptions and misinformation to the classroom. It is very important for learning that teachers should ascertain whether the student has misconceptions. From a constructivist viewpoint, Gunstone (1995) suggests that good science learning is learning in which the student undertakes the tasks of: integrating what is being learned with previous knowledge and beliefs; extending what is being learned into different contexts; and monitoring the learning. Integrating and extending, link students‟ previous knowledge and experiences, and outside school activities, with new learning in the classroom. Monitoring involves understanding why, how and what should be linked. In relation to this argument, Murphy (2003) suggests that primary students come to the classroom with already formed ideas and ways of thinking about a range of scientific phenomena.

One effective strategy for learning and teaching is focusing on „engaged learning‟ (Romeo, 2006) and authentic tasks instead of the focus on students‟ passive learning. This implies the use of interactive and constructivist teaching approaches rather than traditional teaching methods. Romeo also stated that the engaged learning movement is an attempt to turn constructivist theory and what we know about good teaching and learning into practice. He describes engaged learning as a strategy that supports students in constructing knowledge in meaningful ways. In this strategy, teachers play the role of guide, coach, facilitator and co-learner and students are allowed to establish their own learning goals, use appropriate resources and work together in groups to explore real life issues. This idea is supported by Brooks and Brooks (1999), who argued that constructivist teachers engage students in experiences that include initial understandings and then encourage meaningful discussion. Bransford et al. (2000) suggest that effective science teachers should engage students in activities that help students reflect on their own learning and understanding. According to Sawyer (2008), many teachers are not teaching the deep knowledge that motivates innovative activity. He argued that students learn deeper knowledge when they engage in classroom activities that are similar to their everyday activities. Constructivist theory requires a teacher to act as a facilitator to

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help students become active participants in their learning and make meaningful connections between prior knowledge and new knowledge; this means that linking and building new knowledge of their students based on skills, experiences and previous knowledge, engaging students with science learning activities in the classroom, and using problem solving strategies in classroom teaching, should be highly preferred in science education (Bransford et al., 2000; Jonassen et al., 2008; Jonassen, Howland, Moore & Marra; 2003).

Another important aspect related to student-centred learning environments is autonomy in learning. Both students and teachers need to understand the necessity of learner independence (Üstünlüoglu, 2009). Brooks and Brooks (1999) conceive of a constructivist teacher as someone who can encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative. For example, teachers may need to get training on strategies that encourage students to be autonomous, such as problem-based learning (Martin, West & Bill, 2008) and dialogue within primary classroom lessons (Cross, 2003). Teachers need to facilitate and accept student autonomy in learning. In order to promote learning effectively, teachers need to understand how to structure individual accountability (Johnson & Johnson 2007). In this regard, Bransford et al. (2000) assert that learners should be provided with opportunities for reflection and self- regulation, self-esteem and motivation. According to Üstünlüoglu (2009), the implementation of autonomous learning is closely related to classroom management, teacher development and learning resources. He argues that this implementation should be developed in learning environments; otherwise, it would be difficult to implement independent learning in a coherent way.

Students should take the final responsibility for their learning (Gunstone, 2000), evaluate themselves, choose learning activities themselves that they want to learn, be independent learners, and be explorers of knowledge rather than recipients of information (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). In this regard, researchers assert that effective learning should support students taking responsibility for their own learning. For example, Romeo (2006) claims that students should be explorers and producers of knowledge rather than consumers, students‟ interpretation of new

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knowledge would be formulated, modified or refined by what they already know or believe.

Evidence of the importance of autonomy and student responsibility comes from some classroom learning environment surveys, based on constructivist views. For example, Taylor and Fraser (1991) developed the Constructivist Learning Environment Survey (CLES) for examining the development of constructivist classroom learning environments for science and mathematics education and one of its scales, Shared Control, is concerned with students sharing control of the learning environment with their teacher, such as learning goals, learning activities and assessment criteria. For example, one item is: “I help the teacher to decide which activities I do”.

In general, research shows that for effective learning environments, teachers should be encouraged to be student-centred and promote engaged learning and assist students to perceive themselves as relatively autonomous, take responsibility for their learning and see their teacher as a facilitator and guide in the classroom.

Knowledge-centred

Another feature of the Bransford et al. (2000) model is a focus on how to assist students to be knowledgeable. According to Jonassen et al. (1999), constructivists believe that knowledge cannot be simply transferred from the teacher to the student. It is constructed and embedded in activities. Sawyer (2008) suggests that students need to learn integrated and utilizable knowledge, rather than the sets of isolated and superficial facts emphasised by teachers.

Bransford et al. (2000) emphasises that when students organise, adapt and articulate their developing knowledge, they learn more effectively, however Sawyer (2008) saw this as more complex than it might sound. He argued that while learners articulate their knowledge, they still need to develop their understanding and continue to articulate it throughout the process of learning. This could help students to learn more deeply than studying quietly. Romeo (2006) emphasises that the purpose of creating effective learning, is to assist learners to develop meaningful patterns of information, to organise their knowledge and to adapt that knowledge.

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Rutherford and Ahlgren (1990) suggest that effective learning in science requires not only making connections between new ideas and old ones but also restructuring radical thinking. Chittleborough, Hawkins and Treagust (2001) saw taking students along a path from brainstorming to Venn diagrams, to concept mapping, as a way of enhancing thinking and developing understanding.

Putting into practice what students learn is likely to enhance their opportunity for the confirmation of knowledge. Rutherford and Ahlgren (1990) state that students learn to do well when they practise what they learn, by doing. In particular, they argue that students cannot learn to think critically, analyse information, communicate scientific ideas, form logical opinions, work as a team and improve their skills unless they are allowed and encouraged to do those things over and over in many contexts. Williams and Easingwood (2006) suggested two reasons why science in the primary schools should often be taught with reference to practical experiences: science in the wider world is essentially practical; and young students are highly motivated by and enjoy practical work of any kind.

Bransford et al. (2000) state that knowledge is required to think and solve problems. They state that young students are able to grasp more complex ideas than those they have already believed, if these ideas are presented well. Students should also be encouraged to be able to describe and analyse a problem in detail (Shamatha et al., 2004). From the constructivist perspective, White and Gunstone (1992) offer an example of helping students to develop their thinking effectively. They have established the Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) strategy to help primary science teachers to develop discussion of students‟ science conceptions. The strategy aims to help students overcome persistent erroneous beliefs and to develop thinking needed to promote conceptual change. The POE strategy is based on getting students to predict the result of an experiment, observe the experiment and explain what occurred and any discrepancies from their predictions.

In summary, the literature shows that knowledge-centred environments focus on activities that help students to develop skills such as understanding, thinking critically and analysing, rather than just focusing on isolated facts and memorising skills.

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Assessment-centred

It is believed that effective learning environments should also comprise effective assessment strategies because effective teaching and learning provides students with opportunities for feedback and revision and allows them to articulate and regulate their own learning (Bransford et al., 2000). It helps them in comparing and contrasting ideas with those of others and provides reasons why they might accept one point of view rather than another (Shamatha et al., 2004). Bransford et al. (2000) and Romeo (2006) report that student feedback needs to be provided, to occur continuously and that it can be formal or informal.

Bransford et al. (2000) emphasise the value in the classroom of formative assessment, which provides students with opportunities to correct and improve their thinking and understanding. According to Romeo (2006), assessment strategies should promote formative, relevant, and authentic evaluation, encourage learning from errors, and support self-assessment. Shamatha et al. (2004) point out that engaging students in assessment of their own ideas and performance allows them to be more self-directive in planning, pursuing, monitoring, and correcting the path of their own learning.

From a constructivist perspective, Jonassen et al. (1999) assumed that assessment is process-oriented and cannot be separated from learning. They suggest that student assessment should focus not only on students‟ knowledge, but also on skills and understanding, that students learn. Similarly, Sawyer (2008) states that assessment in effective learning and teaching environments should focus on deeper conceptual understanding, rather than superficial facts and procedures

It should be noted however, that formative assessment from a constructivist perspective may be more difficult and time consuming than the traditional assessment (Jonassen et al., 1999) which may explain why formative assessment providing feedback to students, often seems to be largely missing from science classrooms (Mestre, 2001). From reviewing literature, Mestre (2001) found that possibly the biggest barrier to using formative assessments in science classes, is that some teachers may lack effective strategies for using continuous formative

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assessment. He suggests that good formative assessment helps students realise what they do not understand, gives an opportunity to revise and improve the quality of their thinking and provides them with feedback. In a Saudi study, Al-Sadaawi (2007) found that while science teachers seem to be using good strategies in assessing their students such as continuous assessment, science teachers still need to use authentic assessment methods such as performance assessment. According to Burden and Byrd (2010), examples of performance assessment includes assessment of oral presentations, science laboratory processes and participation in an event. In authentic assessment, students should be encouraged to learn from their mistakes and teachers should provide their students with regular feedback (Bransford et al., 2000; Romeo, 2006).

In summary, most researchers agree that, for effective learning, formative, relevant and authentic assessment should be promoted. This assessment can provide students with opportunities for feedback and revision continuously. Teachers need to understand and practice this assessment in their teaching.

Community-centred

The fourth important feature of a learning environment is that of community- centred learning (Bransford et al., 2000). A student is expected to learn from other members of the community. Shamatha et al. (2004) reported that effective educational activities involve fostering environments that invite participation, communication and cooperation. Students should be able to think of their community as one, in which they are encouraged to learn new knowledge, skills, ideas and attitudes from other members: classmates, teachers, educators, parents, friends and other interested participants (Bransford et al., 2000).

Part of the classroom student community, cooperative learning is one of the important characteristics of an effective learning and teaching environment (Sawyer 2008). In order to structure cooperative learning effectively, teachers need to understand how to structure interaction and enhance appropriate use of social skills among student groups (Johnson & Johnson 2007). Romeo (2006) asserts that a community of students should develop a sense of a cooperative learning environment

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that uses the strength of its members to build knowledge. This applies obviously to the classroom but it is desirable that broader communities are seen as educative in this way. In the classroom-student community, students are encouraged to articulate their own ideas and discuss those of others to get meaning, along with other learners (Shamatha et al., 2004). Bransford et al. (2000) state that the cooperative learning environment can be a powerful framework for developing scientific understanding because students share the responsibility for scientific thinking and doing, and distribute their intellectual activity.

Today‟s world may request linking between schools and student community environments. Students may be participants in many other institutions outside their schools and that may foster their learning (Bransford et al., 2000; Romeo, 2006). According to Sawyer (2008), many learning researchers suggest new models of learning that involve deep links between formal school and non-school learning environments. In relation to science education, examples of institutions available for students include public libraries, science centres, museums, after school clubs, on- line activities, and cooperation between students, experts and scientists (Sawyer, 2008).

Vygotsky (1978) argued that understanding and knowledge depend upon a child‟s experiences with the outside world, through different activities such as conversation with other people in societies and communities. According to Taylor and Fraser (1991), student negotiation provides opportunities for students explaining their ideas, listening to and reflecting on other students‟ ideas. This can also be supported by ICT. In order to support students‟ achievements, to facilitate their understanding of scientific contexts and to reinforce self-esteem, computer programs in science should encourage students to be open about their ideas, discuss disagreements in beliefs and share their knowledge by the use of ICT (Bransford et al., 2000) such as online forums and wikis.

In general, it can be noted that community-centred environments encourage a sense of community within the classroom, schools, families, societies and maybe the world as students learn a lot from other students, adults and other members in their societies. Teachers need to consider this environment when they are teaching.

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To sum up, from the literature, there are four perspectives that can describe effective learning and teaching environments. Bransford et al. (2000) called them: learner-centred, knowledge-centred, assessment-centred and community-centred. These are based on a constructivist view. This view as described above is one set of important approaches for science education (Bransford et al., 2000; Gunstone, 2000; Murphy 2006; Romeo, 2006) as constructivism has major implications for science teaching and helps teachers to move from traditional practices to effective practices (Murphy, 2003).

Implementation of new approaches in the classroom such as constructivist approaches may need support from teachers. Murphy (2003) suggests that traditional ideas of teachers are deep-rooted in learning environments and sometimes may be difficult to change. According to Sawyer (2008), the important step to developing good school environments, must be taken by our whole school society such as