Towards a more effective PD

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burdensome obstacle to overcome internationally. Unfortunately, solely increasing teacher declarative knowledge will not directly or automatically result in more enhanced and improved teaching instruction (Ó Ceallaigh, 2013). Knowing how to transform this knowledge into effective pedagogy should therefore be the cornerstone of any PD programme (Ó Ceallaigh, 2016). In investigating such a transformation of knowledge, a robust number of studies have resulted in numerous amounts of characteristics which claim to foster effective PD (Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001; Guskey, 2003; Loucks-Horsley, Stiles, Mundry, & Hewson, 2009). Based on such evaluations, abundant models of PD have been established. Kennedy (2014) has categorised nine predominant models of PD that may be effective in enhancing teacher development. These models include:  training model,  award-bearing model,  deficit model,  cascade model,  standards-based model,  coaching/mentoring model,

 community of practice model,

 action research model, and

 transformative model.

Unfortunately, it is beyond the scope of the current investigation to describe each PD mod- el in detail; however, further information can be found in Appendix D. Kennedy (2014) maps these nine models along a continuum, ranging from transmissive models to trans- formative models (Table 2.6). The continuum highlights the capacity of each model to in- crease autonomy among teachers and to further transform their practice.

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Table 2.6.

Continuum of PD Models

Purpose of Model Examples of models of PD which may

fit within this category

Transmissive Training models

Deficit models Cascade model Increasing ca-

pacity for pro- fessional auton- omy and teacher

agency

Award-bearing models Standards-based models Coaching/mentoring models Community of practice models Malleable

Transformative Collaborative professional inquiry mod-

els

(Kennedy, 2014, p. 693). Smith (2012) maintains that PD models within the transmissive category would appropri- ately suit those who seek a “product based outcome” (p. 80), while those models located within the transformative category are suggested to best suit those who seek a “process ap- proach” to PD (p. 80). Kennedy (2005) claims that the capacity for teacher autonomy in- creases from transmissive models, through to malleable models to transformative models of PD, which is illustrated in Table 2.6.

Notwithstanding such evident research and literature, it is important to address that Kennedy (2014) cautions that “… it is absolutely essential to acknowledge that no one in- dividual model of CPD on its own can be seen to support a particular purpose of CPD” (p. 694). That is to say, Kennedy advocates the use of combined models to establish a fruitful PD programme. As such, Kennedy’s recommendations align with that of Guskey (1994), who states:

The uniqueness of the individual setting will always be a critical factor in education. What works in one situation may not work in another ... Our search must focus, therefore, on finding the optimal mix – the assortment of professional development processes and technologies that work best in a particular setting”. (Guskey, 1994, pp. 6-7)

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Smith (2012, p. 2) supports these perspectives, concluding that a “one size fits all” model of teacher PD does not exist. Therefore, rather than emphasising the use of a precise mod- el, Smith advocates the use of effective PD characteristics in establishing a PD model that caters to the specific needs of the teacher participants and their sociocultural contexts.

In keeping with this, Smith (2012, p. 70), states that, educationalists (Hawley & Valli, 1999; Guskey, 2003; Kennedy, 2014) generally include the following PD characteristics as pivotal in enhancing the quality and success of PD:

 Enhance teachers’ content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge,

 Be on-going and sustained,

 Involve active engagement on the part of the participants,

 Be job-embedded,

 Be collaborative and collegial in nature, and

 Encourage teachers to reflect on their learning.

Smith’s (2012) findings mirrored these characteristics as he recommended similar features but further included the need for the provision of feedback to teachers on their practices and also highlighted a need for a system for PD evaluation. It is suggested that such appro- priate conditions and characteristics of PD increase the potential depth of understanding that leads to change in teaching practices (Stewart, 2014, p. 28). Furthermore, it should be mentioned that researchers (e.g. Murphy, Smith, Varley & Raxi, 2015; Stewart, 2014) highlight that PD potential is augmented when it is implemented in an active and consistent manner within the teachers’ own environment and which is further supported by peers in a “professional learning community” (Stewart, 2014, p. 28).

To extend Smith’s (2012) list, Ó Laoire and Harris (2006) recommend PD courses to make particular reference to immersion education, teacher fluency, and competence and confidence in using the Irish language to teach. This is further strengthened by the Teach- ing Council of Ireland (2011), who acknowledge the need for high standards of Irish pri- mary school teachers regarding the teaching of Irish, drawing specific attention to the lan- guage as a means of communication and instruction. In keeping with these recommenda- tions, in the immersion setting, the MKO (i.e. the teacher) should be considered a key lan- guage model for the immersed students. Thus, the teacher requires high-proficiency levels

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of L2 and deep linguistic conceptual understandings. Therefore, it appears warranted to suggest that PD models, relating specifically to immersion teachers, need to provide input to teachers on their knowledge about grammar (KAG) (Borg, 2001, 2015). Such a need is further supported by Wright (2002), who claims that, “A linguistically aware teacher not only understands how language works, but understands the students’ struggle with lan- guage and is sensitive to errors and other interlanguage features” (p. 115). Borg (2001) maintains that teachers who attain high levels of KAG are generally perceived to be more confident in promoting discussions relating to language forms among students. Further- more, Borg (2001) suggests that teachers who attain high KAG are more inclined to en- gage in spontaneous grammar instruction in the classroom, which is an essential compo- nent to engaging in error-correction. For this reason, Irish researchers (McKendry & Uí Éigeartaigh, 2006; Ó Ceallaigh, 2016) maintain that dual-focused PD should be provided to immersion teachers, which focuses on linguistic competencies and associated pedagogi- cal practices. These factors should be central to the establishment of any PD programme for immersion teachers.

Moreover, literature claims that if teachers are not motivated to engage in PD either by intrinsic factors (personal factors) or extrinsic factors (external factors such as pupils’ needs, registration requirements) (Almutlaq, Dimitriadi, & McCrindle, 2017), PD may be ineffective, regardless of well-structured effective models (Kennedy & Shiel, 2010). An interesting finding noted by Kennedy and Shiel (2010, p. 379), in relation to teacher PD motivation, reveals that teachers become more confident and motivated in their work once signs of increased student attainment begin to emerge. These findings are mirrored in other studies (Murphy, Smith, Varley, & Razı, 2015; Smith, 2014, 2015). Such discoveries sug- gest that the most effective PD programmes may, not only enhance student outcomes, but also motivate teachers to progress in engaging in further PD.

Finally, Fullan (2014) maintains that, generally, teachers who are successful in changing their practices as a result of PD often experience an “implementation dip” (p. 5). Fullan (2014, p. 40) explains the implementation dip as a simple, “… dip in performance and confidence as one encounters an innovation that requires new skills and new under- standings”. Therefore, Fullan suggests that PD providers who are aware of such an imple- mentation dip understand that teachers experience two “dip” problems which include expe- riencing a fear of changing their practice and, secondly, a lack of “know how” (p. 41) to successfully implement the changed practices in their own contexts. From this viewpoint, Fullan (2014), among other researchers (e.g. Smith, 2015, Guskey, 2000), place a major

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emphasis on the need for follow-up support to ensure effective development among teach- ers. Literature discussed in this paragraph coincides with Smith’s (2012) concept of on- going and sustained PD.

It appears from the literature illustrated in this section that successful PD entails more than just once off in-service seminars that the majority of Irish teachers currently en- gage in (Smith, 2015). Effective PD requires a course of progressional development that enables the teacher to renew, review, and extend their knowledge; which reinforces Day’s (1999) definition of PD recommended earlier. It is important to address at this point that findings regarding the impact of PD continue to vary in different contexts, even when all “common characteristics of effective PD” are evident (Kennedy, 2016; Opfer & Pedder, 2011). This appears to strengthen the argument made by Smith (2012), that the characteris- tics of effective PD differ depending on contextual and teacher needs and that one size does not, in fact, fit all. Smith’s standpoint is further reinforced by the OECD (Organisa- tion for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2005), who state that the most effec- tive form of PD is that which focuses,

on clearly articulated priorities, provide ongoing school-based support to classroom teachers, deal with subject matter content as well as suita- ble instructional strategies and classroom management techniques and create opportunities for teachers to observe, experience and try new teaching methods. (OECD, 2005, p. 129)

Given all the literature considered in this section, the researcher postulates that a Vygotski- an sociocultural framework provides a peerless structure in establishing effective PD for teachers. The researcher will now briefly explore such a theoretical stance in keeping with the effective characteristics explored above.

2.9.3. PD from a SCT Perspective. According to researchers (Eun, 2008; Fani &