Element analysis

Four elements were selected for further study: the generics fauld and doors, and the specifics whinny and bombhole. Each of these elements serves to demonstrate an important aspect of field names in the context of lexicography.

4.5.7.1. Fauld

Fauld is found as a generic in the following field names recorded in 1979: Back Faulds, Backfaulds, Broxfauld, Dullofaulds, Halton Fauld, Lathero Faulds, North Cogfauld and South Cogfauld. This element and its variants fald and fold also occur in thirty-three older names collected from maps dated between 1760 and c.1900.

The SND notes that fauld may be the Scots version of English fold, ‘a pen’ for animals (SND s.v. fauld n.2.,v.2; OED 2 s.v. fold n.2). Alternatively, fauld can refer to ‘the part of the outfield which was manured by folding cattle upon it”, a sense marked as being obsolete with the last quotation dating from 1871 (SND s.v. fauld n.2.,v.2). Meanwhile, the OED states that fauld may be the Scots variant of the more general fold n.1 ‘the surface of the earth; the ground’ (OED 2 s.v. fold n.1) Given the context of fauld in the current study, the SND’s definitions seem the most probable. These are also the meanings attributed to fauld by Burns (2015:153).

With regards to determining which of the two SND definitions is relevant in each name, Scott (2004:136-137) argues that, if present, the specific may provide guidance. When the specific references a plant, either cultivated or wild, which likely grows on a field, the sense is more likely to be ‘the part of the outfield which was manured by folding cattle upon it’ (Scott, 2004:136-137). Among the Kinross-shire examples, then, Wheat Fauld, recorded in 1809, and Rye Fauld,

recorded in 1810, likely represent this meaning. On the other hand, fauld ‘pen’ is more probable when the specific is a domesticated animal (Scott, 2004:136-137).

One instance of such a name in the Kinross-shire corpus is Ewe Fauld, found in a map dating from 1837. More recently, two names recorded in the 1970s, North Cogfauld and South Cogfauld⁷, allude to farm animals with cog being a ‘wooden vessel […] used in milking cows’, suggesting it was where cows were milked (SND cog n.1.1). That cog is chiefly Scottish in usage may increase the likelihood that the second element is Scots as well (OED 2 s.v. cogue, cog n.1).

Although the specifics of the Kinross-shire examples sometimes offer clues to the precise meaning of fauld, in many instances, such as Backfaulds, Lathero Faulds and Halton Faulds, it is unclear which sense is being drawn on.

In SCOTS, fauld occurs at a rate of just 0.00083 per 1000 occurrences in the written section and does not appear at all in the spoken. The variant fold is

recorded with the sense ‘pen’ just once in the written section and, like fauld, is not found in the spoken. The third variant fald does not appear in either section. The results from SCOTS underline field names as source of vocabulary not attested or rarely attested in other types of language. However, the case of fauld also

highlights a potential issue in using this type of evidence in lexicography as it is not always possible to pinpoint meaning.

4.5.7.2. Doors

Doors appears in two names from 1970s, Burtes Doors and Mens Doors, as well as two older names, Pore Doors, recorded in 1836 and Fairy Doors, recorded in 1796.

The last of these names is also listed by Taylor et al. (2017:490) who state that it refers to ‘an exposed face of sedimentary rock which resembles a low, wide

entrance into the hill-side’, though doors does not appear in the element glossary.

The name Fairy Doors can be seen in a plan of Kinnesswood Eastside Lands, shown in figure 4.10. It would appear that dotted lines indicate a path (circled in blue) and

7 Cogfauld is recorded in Kinross-shire between 1853-1855 as the name of ‘a small dwelling house byer [sic]

and croft’ (OS1/13/4/42; see also Taylor et al, 2017:142). It is possible that North Cogfauld and South Cogfauld are derived from this earlier name.

that Fairy Doors (circled in pink) names that path. An alternative explanation for Fairy Doors, then, may be that it names a path through the field.

Figure 4.10. Fairy Doors in Kinnesswood Eastside Lands, 1796

The example of Fairy Doors, naming a path in Kinnesswood Eastside Lands, implies that doors is being used with the meaning ‘passage’. A similar element is reported in neighbouring Fife by Taylor and Márkus (2006-2012, v:356) who note that the second element of the names Monduras and Lindores may be from Gaelic doras

‘doorway, door’ referring to an ‘opening’ or ‘a pass through the hills’ as is the case with Fairy Doors. The lack of Gaelic elements in the farms containing doors in Kinross-shire suggests that doras was not borrowed into Scots. Nevertheless, the Gaelic instances provide a potential parallel which, alongside the illustration of Fairy Doors, supports the element doors meaning ‘passage’.

This sense of door is not included in the SND, likely due to their policy of not including senses shared with English. It does appear in the OED entry for door n.4

‘transf. anything resembling a door in its motion or use; a lid, valve; an opening, a

passage’. Yet, only one of the four supporting quotations makes use of door

‘passage’: R. Hooke Micrographia 46 ‘How those Atoms come to be hindred from running all out, when a dore or passage in their Pores is made’, dated 1665. The entry has not yet been revised for the third edition which is incorporating more onomastic evidence. The field names could therefore provide additional evidence for this sense.

4.5.7.3. Whinny

Whinny occurs twice in field names recorded in the late 1700s: Whinnyknow and Whinn Pasture. It is also recorded nine times in the 1970s names: Whinny Park, Whinny Brae, Whinnyknowes (x2), Whinhillocks, Whinnies, Whin, Whins Field and The Whins. The OED and SND both contain entries for whinny ‘covered with whins’, the latter stating that it only occurs in place names (OED 2 s.v. whinny adj.1; SND s.v. whin n.2 2(12) whinnie (i) adj.). This is also the definition given by Field

(1972:253) in English field names with instances such as Whinny Meadow supporting this conclusion. In Scotland, Scott (2004:595) states that the first element in

Whinny Hall in Dalmeny also refers to furze. Further, a number of records in the Ordnance Survey Name Books feature this element denoting areas where the plant grows across the country. For example, Whinny Rigg in Dumfriesshire is described as

‘a slightly elevated ridge, overgrown with whins’ whilst Whinny Knowe in Angus is ‘a small elevation upon the side of Balshando Hill which is covered rather thickly with furze’ (OS1/10/11/28; OS1/14/66/15). Consequently, it seems likely that amongst the Kinross-shire field names, at least some instances of whinny reference the plant.

In the Kinross-shire names, as well as in work by Scott (2004:595) and Burns (2015:311), whinny and whin(s) are the only terms recorded as denoting this plant.

In contrast are findings from England where whinny and whin, derived from Old Norse (ON) hvin, are largely restricted to areas which were settled by the

Scandinavians. Outwith these areas, furze and gorse (and their related adjectives, furzy and gorsy) are the preferred elements (Cox, 1987-1988; Cameron, 2008).

Discussing Rutland, Cox (1987-1988:5) argues that the relative scarcity of whinny and whin in the county reveals that the area ‘kept its English integrity’. In

Kinross-shire, and indeed elsewhere in Scotland, terms derived from ON hvin appear

to be the only terms in place names to denote the furze plant. There thus seems to be clear distinction between English and Scottish names.

Although whinny ‘gorsy, furzy’ seems likely to be the element in the Kinross-shire names, an alternative meaning may be plausible in one or more instances. The OED, though not the SND, also contains the entry whinny adj.2 ‘of the nature of or containing whin or whinstone’. Further, Taylor and Márkus

(2006-2012, v:529) define whinny as ‘associated with or made of whinstone i.e.

basalt’ as found in Whinnystane, Dalgety. The specific whinny in Kinross-shire, then, may reference the rock rather than a plant. This is particularly likely in the case of Whinny Brae which is located on Broom Farm in Blairingone, a ‘village which is first and foremost known for its mines’ with whinstone among the minerals

present (Fossoway community website, accessed 17/9/18). If, at least in some instances, the current examples of whinny refer to whinstone, it may indicate that the 1970s field names were coined far earlier than they were recorded; Taylor and Márkus’ (2006-2012, i:259) example of Whinnystane is recorded only in 1753 before being lost and the OED’s last quotation for whinny ‘whinstone’ is from 1864, though the entry has not yet been updated (OED 2 s.v. whinny, adj.). Alternatively, the 1970s field names could indicate that whinny ‘whinstone’ has continued in use longer than suggested by Whinnystane and the OED examples.

In BNC, neither whinny as an adjective referencing gorse nor whinstone is recorded. Instead, whinny occurs only as a noun denoting the neigh of horses (OED 2 s.v. whinny n.1). The example of whinny therefore underlines field names as a source of additional evidence for items of vocabulary which, although attested, are not readily found in other areas of language. This is especially true for the potential occurrence of whinny ‘whinstone’ which, whilst recorded by the OED, has only one supporting quotation.

4.5.7.4. Bombhole

Bombhole occurs twice in the field names corpus; as a specific in Bombhole Field in Mawmill Farm and as a simplex, The Bomb Hole, in Mains of Blairingone. A note made on the record for Bombhole Field explains that the field was named after a bomb dropped on it during World War II. Neither bombhole, bomb hole nor

bomb-hole appear in the OED, SND, SCOTS or BNC, suggesting that the element may be a compound coined specially for the field names. However, an online search reveals other instances of bombhole being used to describe a ‘crater created by a bomb’. For instance, a book of World War I sketches held by the University of Victoria contains a drawing entitled Bomb Hole (spcoll.library.unvic.ca). The word is also found on various web pages including as a clue for crater in crosswords (e.g.

the crossword solver, accessed 17/9/18). Additionally, bomb hole is noted as a term in mountain biking for ‘dips in the ground that look like the crater left after a bomb goes off’

(bikerader.com/gear/article/beginners-guide-to-mountain-biking-part5-27713).

These various examples of bombhole indicate it to be a compound used in a variety of contexts and not restricted to naming. The Kinross-shire names Bombhole Field and The Bomb Hole thus provide further evidence for a word which could be included in future editions of English and Scots dictionaries.

4.6. Conclusion

Throughout both time periods included in the Kinross-shire survey, field names generally act as useful descriptions of the land, conveying information such as its use, size or condition. Consequently, these names frequently show a close

connection to the lexicon in terms of semantics with both literal and figurative field names largely paralleling everyday language.

Yet, whilst the links between the field names and the lexicon can easily be seen, contrasts between the former and other types of names are apparent.

Metaphor, for example, a feature prominent in major place names, is very

infrequently recorded in the field names. Also functioning differently in the field names are the definite article and directional terms.

Finally, the more detailed studies in section 4.8 of four field name elements demonstrate some of the challenges in using this type of evidence for lexicography.

In particular, lack of context can create ambiguity around the precise meaning of a word. Yet section 4.8 also showed some of the benefits field names can offer by providing additional evidence for words rarely or, in the case of bombhole, not yet, attested in dictionaries.