Embodied Cognition

As the term implies, cognitive science concerns analysis and research on cognition. Traditionally, cognition is that what we do in our mind, in line with the Cartesian split between mind and body. With the emergence of Artificial Intelligence, the mind has been likened to, or is seen as, a computational machine, which receives sensory information as input, performs computation on this information, and then produces actions as output [13], [62]. The mind is an information processing system [62].

Embodied Cognition offers an alternative to this vision, arguing that the body plays a significant role in cognitive processes [63]. For example, Kirsh describes the relation between the body and the mind in dancing [64]. He notes that when learning to perform a dance, the dancers make use of a technique they call marking. Marking refers to the practice of creating a simplified version of the dance with a part of the body, such as performing the leg work with the fingers instead of with the whole body. The dancers say they can focus on other aspects of the dance, such as timing and rhythm, which they could not if they performed it with their whole body. Interestingly, the body is still involved in the marking process.

Furthermore, Kirsh argues that if the body can be part of cognitive processes, then so can the environment [64]. This theory is called Distributed Cognition, since the cognition is distributed across the environment to encompass interactions with people, tools and objects in this environment [65]. A group of people working to- gether is as much a distributed cognitive system as is an individual human thinking on his or her own [66]. The processes in the cognitive system are functionally re- lated, and are dynamically allocated and incorporated based on their function, rather than on their spatial location, such as within brain or body [65].

“External representation” [67] is similar to distributed cognition. It is agreed that the environment plays an important role with regard to cognition, but the environment is not part of cognition itself [68]. The environment is used to reduce the cognitive workload by taking over certain functions. For example, artifacts such as notebooks and calendars relieves us from memorising the events and information. Similarly, when solving math problems, it is often easier to write it down or to physically move the representation [67].

The importance of the context in which interaction takes and what it means for cognition is also present in (Socially) Situated Cognition [69]. Cognitive processes such as memory, decision making, and so forth, do not happen in isolation. Rather, they are situated in the social context, within an environment [15]. Cognition can not be analysed independently of the historical, cultural and social context, because what meaning we give to the world around is constituted by social interaction [69]. On the other hand, traditional sociological theories about for example culture is re- shaped: culture is a collection of practices and actions [70].

One pioneer with regard to the importance of seeing artifacts as socially situated is Lucy Suchman [71]. She has performed multiple ethnographic studies of the role of artifacts in a “situated practice”, that is, certain situation in which the standard actions and concepts are shaped by the available technology, and the social context. An example of situated practice originally analysed by [72] is described in detail in [15]. Originally, in an Air Traffic Control tower, flight strips were used to relay information about the different flights, such as altitude, speed and heading, which is written on the paper itself. In addition, however, the strips also signalled the status of flights through their physical configuration, such as the racks they are placed in or which one was sticking out. This practice is not inherent to the strips, but emerged through the interaction of the people with the environment. Information was shared socially. When the situation is changed without taking into account these practices, for example due to digitisation, such information can be lost.

Embodied Cognition and Smartphone Use

Like with phenomenology, theories on Embodied Cognition provide an alternative perspective compared to traditional theories on what it means to interact with tech- nology and how meaning is created through technology.

One reason why the smartphone has become so successful is because it can take on multiple functions in a dynamic way. Where previously notebooks, calculat- ors and pens all formed part of the distributed system, these functions are now all allocated in the smartphone. It has become an external memory device for notes, and also allows access a nearly infinite pool of information. In addition, because the smartphone is always present, its position in the distributed network has become expected. For example, the smartphone is often used for finding the right route from A to B. When the smartphone is not available for some reason, the user gets lost, because he or she is not used to finding the right route without the smartphone anymore. Similarly, people use the smartphone for doing simple calculations.

Removing the smartphone from this system has become nearly impossible. People are not addicted to their smartphone in the same sense as that they are not addicted

to their writing or typing skills. It has become part of how they think.