Halal and haram in food is a very sensitive and serious matter to all Muslims (Abdul Latif, 2006).
The impact of globalization and the advancement of science and technology have led to curiosity among the Muslims in particular regarding the food they consumed. As a result, more information on food sources and processing are heavily acquired by them (Muhammad, 2007). In a report, Abirerah (2008) claimed that there have been cases of food processing factories that ignored the halal standard where halal and haram foods are stored together in a cold storage in Malaysia. It is reported that one of the suspected factories was believed to have stored raw materials that were placed together with pork and pigs’ intestines. This situation appeared to cast doubt as there were quite a number of food processing industries that have used fake halal logos to attract and lure the Muslim consumers. Furthermore, it is extensively reported on the existence of unauthorized organizations that certify eating establishments in Malaysia apart from Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM)/Department of Islamic Development Malaysia (Idris, 2010). These certifiers claimed that they have the authority to check, monitor and approve halal certificates, which could raise doubts among Muslim consumers.
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In another aspect, the impact of modern manufacturing methods has created confusion among halal producers. Much of the debate centred on the use of stunning in animal slaughter (Bonne & Verbeke, 2008), as discussed above. This has resulted in significant differences in standards between countries and repeated auditing (Regenstein et al., 2003b). Regenstein et al.
(2003b) reasoned that there has not been a central ruling authority for many years where Muslim inspectors follow different traditions with respect to the dietary standards they enforce.
Another issue in the halal industry is the emergence of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) where such products could have been mixed with non-halal derived genes. Riaz and Chaudry (2004) defined biotechnology as an extension of plant and animal breeding and genetics, which have been practiced for decades and in some cases, for centuries. Hence, the introduction of animal genes into food plants presents considerably ethical difficulties for Muslims from their religious standpoint. Baker and Mazzocco (2005) stated that the production of foods using biotechnology or GMOs is considered a credence attribute because in most cases consumers cannot easily ascertain the process by which the food is produced. While there may be some noteworthy exceptions, as would be the case if a GMO yielded a product with a distinct colour or shape, in most cases the production process is not detectable by consumers or is detectable only with considerable effort or expense.
Linton et al. (1998) found many foods are inherently contaminated with disease causing micro-organisms, especially foods of animal origin. Each year, red meat, poultry and seafood products are the leading vehicles of reported cases of food borne illness. Due to these food safety concerns, countries like Australia and New Zealand have taken stringent actions and made decision for mandatory labelling of foods containing genetically modified food (Scully, 2003) due to negative opinions and issues in the media and political debate (Fortin & Renton, 2003). The purpose of labelling is to inform consumers what they are eating and how it was produced in order for them to make better choices and avoid foods that raise any ethical concerns although GMO labelling is a sensitive issue (Ellahi, 1994), that could be damaging to the sales of the product.
Islam teaches caution and moderation to Muslims in food consumption. Riaz and Chaudry (2004) explained that GM foods and GM ingredients may not be haram, but many Muslims may avoid them anyway because they do not feel comfortable consuming them. There are also ethical and religious problems to both Muslim and non-Muslims consumers associated with GM food as it relates on specific kind of modification where the transfer of copy genes of human origin to other
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organisms is involved (Ellahi, 1994). This issue has gained different feedback from various religious groups such as the Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, Bahai faith, Jewish faith and Christian sects. The literature noted that Islam prohibits the transfer but the transfer is acceptable to Jews while other religious groups fall between these two groups’ opinions.
In Islam, complication arises when genes from haram animals are used into halal animals or plants. The Muslim consumers do not buy into the benefits of GMOs given the difficult issues surrounding the complication of the genes from the haram animals on halal animals or plants. Riaz and Chaudry (2004) also pointed out other biotechnology related issues such as cloning animals for food use and designing new species of animals which will be equally challenging for the religious scholars to make their review and evaluation. However, Coward (2008) through his dialogue, focus groups and study, found that at this point, some Muslim scholars accept cloning for animals but not for humans. They believed that cloning and genetic modification as a miracle made possible by Allah and as a means of betterment for the world and should not invite sufferings for animals.
Additionally, Revel (1997) highlighted that the ethical debate on cloning particularly animal experimentation is still on the early stage although he suggested that crossbreeding animals is an acceptable technique for genetic improvement, thus, enhances the quality of meat for human consumption. Whatever it takes, Coward (2008) summarized his views that any religion accepts animal genetic modification in fulfilling human needs and not meeting individual or corporate greed.
2.7 Chapter Summary
In summary, Islam has guided its followers on permitted and prohibited foods under Islamic dietary laws. All details concerning the rules have reasons behind them that could be found in the Quran and the Hadith. An additional requirement for Muslims is that they require safe food from the beginning of the food chain until they consume the food. In fact, all religions emphasize on food safety. Bonne and Verbeke (2008) noted that the impact of religion on food consumption depends on the religion itself and on the extent to which individuals follow the teachings of their religion. In addition, most religions prohibit certain foods, for example pork and not ritually slaughtered meat in Judaism and Islam and beef in Hinduism and Buddhism. However, Christianity is a notable exception, which has no food taboos.
A relevant issue pertaining to the values of Muslims dietary restriction is the concept of farm to fork that is guided by the Islamic law. Therefore, it is important for the Muslims to know
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the source of food that they eat (Dahalan, 2008). In essence, Islamic religion inspired requirements that focused on spirituality is developed through many compositions and one of them is food. So, it is an indicator for food service industries to take the opportunity of this unique concept by labelling and displaying the halal certification properly as the consumers have the right to expect food that they eat to be safe and suitable for consumption. In this context, most of the dietary restrictions placed on Muslims fall in the domain of animal kingdom, especially land animals (Riaz &
Chaudry, 2004). Thus, halal slaughtering method must be applied to halal animals although public debate on slaughtering and stunning of animals are indefinitely discussed with the issue of animal cruelty and animal welfare being highlighted.
However, according to Islamic Jurisprudence, no one except God can change forbidden (haram) things into lawful (halal) or vice-versa. It is forbidden for people to change the lawful (halal) things into unlawful (haram) or vice versa although there are times when new technology arises such as cloning of animals that need further references from the schools of thought. In addition to their religious significance, the Muslims consider halal certification as a seal of quality and they will have greater confidence in consuming such products or foods. In fact, other religions are very much concerned on food safety and certification that promotes good health and peace of mind.
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CHAPTER THREE
FOOD SAFETY AND CERTIFICATION
3.0 Introduction
There is a global increase in concern as to the safety of food for consumption. De Jonge et al.
(2008) and Mohd Daud (2004) stressed that the growing awareness of the importance of food safety is due to the numerous severe outbreaks and food borne illnesses that took so many lives and one of them is the global Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) food contamination. In this context, lack of knowledge on food hygiene and safety lead to more risks. Hashim (2004) added that most of the food poisoning cases are caused by negligence as many people do not know how to handle, store or prepare food and are not able to spot potential cause of food spoilage in grocery stores or food outlets. Hence, a need for a preventive and cost effective food safety assurance method is required. In Malaysia, the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) System works in line with the halal standard to ensure the food is safe and halal. The HACCP System is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identification, assessment and control of hazards during production, processing, manufacturing, preparation and use of food to ensure that food is safe when consumed (for example: it does not present an unacceptable risk to health). The HACCP System can be readily integrated into management systems like Total Quality Management, ISO 9000 and halal standard (Mohd Daud, 2004).
There are several certifications that exist in delivering good and safe food apart from religious certification. Higgins et al. (2008) emphasized that certification schemes are broadly aimed based on ‘qualities’ associated with the product, process or place of production. Moreover, by using the standards, third party auditing and product labeling, these qualities are independently verified and communicated to consumers. It is then further argued that, certification have a number of benefits for consumers and producers, especially as it helps respond to the increasing demands of consumers that foods be produced in ethical, environmentally sustainable and socially just ways.
Organic and GMO certification are some of the examples that receive high demand and acceptance (Makatouni, 2002). Consumers on the other hand, should recognize their role in choosing suitable and safe food as to avoid food risks. In order to support this, food service management and staff also need to be motivated to improve hygiene standards as training alone may not produce the
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desired changes (Morrison et al., 1998). They stressed that law enforcement can force them to meet the goal and that hygiene education can provide the required knowledge.
This chapter looks at food certification and safety. It begins by comparing food safety from religious and secular aspects. From there, it provides some food scare cases and the importance of food safety to consumers. Then, examples of types of certification on organic and GMO foods would follow with specific focus on religious certification on kosher and halal foods. It then goes into a broader aspect when international halal food certification is presented.