Environmental impact of cassava production and processing

Most cassava is produced by smallholder farmers living in marginal and fragile environments, and particularly on erosion-prone, acid and infertile soils. This ability to produce on poor soils, where most other crops would fail, has given cassava a possibly undeserved reputation. However, there are serious environmental concerns about cassava production (FAO 2001). Cassava production can be detrimental to soil fertility through crop removal of nutrients.

Due to the low value of cassava products, the application of manures and chemical fertilizers, which could easily address nutrient depletion, may not be economically justified or affordable for smallholders. However, at current yield levels, soil nutrient depletion by cassava is lower than depletion caused by other crops (FAO 2001).

Cassava production can result in serious erosion when the crop is grown on slopes or on light soils. Good agronomic practices (adequate fertilization, closer plant spacing, planting on contour ridges, intercropping, reduced tillage), used alone or in combination, reduce erosion by 50–90% and properly managed cassava production on slopes does not necessarily cause erosion (FAO 2001). It is considered unlikely that cassava production results in water pollution, as it is grown mainly by poor farmers who apply no or very low rates of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. However, this may change in the future (FAO 2001). Cassava production does not seem to have had broad effects on biodiversity, though some local situations merit further attention, such as deforestation in the northeast of Thailand or the competition with native cassava species in Latin America (FAO 2001).

Cassava processing produces large amounts of by-products and contributes significantly to environmental pollution (FAO 2001). A cassava starch production unit processing 100 t of tubers/day may produce 47 t of fresh by-products, which may cause environmental problems when left in the surroundings of processing plants or carelessly disposed of (Aro et al. 2010). In Nigeria, for example, cassava residues are mainly left to rot away or burnt off to create space for the accumulation of new generations of waste heaps, emitting carbon dioxide and producing a strong offensive smell (Adebayo 2008; Aro et al. 2010). Cassava peels (high levels of cyanogenic glucosides) and pomace (high levels of biodegradable organic matter) may cause surface water pollution, especially when stored under heavy rain or disposed of in surface waters (Cereda et al. 1996; Barana and Cereda 2000; Pandey et al. 2000).

The presence of a large processor or of a high concentration of small processors can cause the eutrophication of slow moving water systems, notably during the dry season (FAO 2001). On the other hand, cassava

processing does not seem to affect groundwater supply, except perhaps in the immediate surroundings of processing units due to leachates filtering through the soil (FAO 2001). Starch extraction requires large volumes of water and may cause water depletion, but in most areas this problem is minimized by the adoption of processing technologies suited to the water resources available (FAO 2001). Generally, the long-term and broad-based impact of cassava processing on the environment can be corrected by proper waste treatment (FAO 2001) and the use of cassava by-products as feedstuffs or as an alternative substrate for biotechnological processes is a good way to alleviate environmental issues (Pandey et al. 2000).

Table A1. Nutritional composition of cassava (M. esculenta) by products used in livestock feeding programs FractionVarietyLocaleTreatmentAgeDMCrude proteinDigest protein

ADSCP or Sol CP

Crude fat or EE

Crude fiberNDFADFAD ligninNFCStarch (polar- imetry)

Total sugarsNFEAshEnergy (gross)Refer Unit (dry basis)%%%%%%%%%%%%%MJ/kg Leaf meal concentrateM. utilissimaNigeriaPulped fresh, pressed, heat extracted, sun dried

34.56Eggum, 1970 Leaf meal concentrateMS6Akure, NigeriaPulped fresh, pressed, heat extracted, sun dried

42.419.42.323.57.3520Fasuyi and Aletor 2005 Leaf meal concentrateTMS 30555Akure, NigeriaPulped fresh, pressed, heat extracted, sun dried

46.422.82.614.76.8539.9Fasuyi and Aletor 2005 Leaf meal concentrateTMS 30572Akure, NigeriaPulped fresh, pressed, heat extracted, sun dried

5021.61.811.59.3536.2Fasuyi and Aletor 2005 Leaf meal concentrateEge OdaAkure, NigeriaPulped fresh, pressed, heat extracted, sun dried 49.322.41.414.17.9500.8Fasuyi and Aletor 2005 Leaf meal concentratePão da China (31)Lavras, BrazilHeat extracted, 80 C 15 min

54170262.2Modesti et al. 2007 Leaf meal concentratePão da China (33)Lavras, BrazilAcid extracted, pH 4

5417.31.6242.2Modesti et al. 2007 Average47.220.11.619.06.0 Leaf meal concentrate residue

Pão da ChinaLavras, BrazilHeat extract residue9.519.8747.919.65.7Modesti et al. 2007 Leaf meal concentrate residue Pão da ChinaLavras, BrazilAcid extract residue10.619.16.74127.55.6Modesti et al. 2007 Leaf meal21258.5Ravindran 1993

Leaf mealWT (wild type)Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground 92.231.2440.007.0520.3919.858.3539.596.29Mutayoba et al. 2012 Leaf mealp770Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground

92.430.8422.007.6522.1221.539.0642.946.82Mutayoba et al. 2012 Leaf mealp768Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground 91.423.3018.006.1328.7728.459.8537.207.77Mutayoba et al. 2012 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

12 months90.829.224.1Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh 15 months90.828.722.5Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

17 months90.825.121.6Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMaracanãLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh 12 months90.833.324Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMaracanãLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

15 months90.826.223Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMaracanãLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh 17 months90.824.722Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMANTIACLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

12 months90.832.724.8Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMANTIACLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh 15 months90.826.526.9Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMANTIACLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

17 months90.824.125.7Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealIAC 289-70Lavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh 12 months90.836.228Wobeto et al. 2006

Leaf mealIAC 289-71Lavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh 15 months90.824.929.6Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealIAC 289-72Lavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

17 months90.823.328.3Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh 12 months90.835.923.6Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

15 months90.824.728.1Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

17 months90.827.224.5Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMS6Abeokuta, NigeriaShade dried, milled 1 mm9023.57.359.629.31.6Oni et al. 2010 Leaf mealTMS 30555Abeokuta, NigeriaShade dried, milled 1 mm88.424661.327.91.6Oni et al. 2011 Leaf mealTMS 30572Abeokuta, NigeriaShade dried, milled 1 mm90.120.8761.325.46.5Oni et al. 2012 Leaf mealIdileruwaAbeokuta, NigeriaShade dried, milled 1 mm89.117.76.666.224.51.5Oni et al. 2013 Leaf meal61584 Ohupon (bitter)

NigeriaSun dried355.9611.7642.045.2Eggum, 1970 Leaf mealGCH (bitter)NigeriaSun dried37.46.0810.9639.875.96Eggum, 1970 Leaf meal44086 Congo (Panja sweet)

NigeriaSun dried32.855.7411.3844.795.34Eggum, 1970 Leaf mealPão da ChinaLavras, BrazilDried ambient temp 6 days, rinsed, ground 74.63428.41221.4256.5Modesti et al. 2007 Leaf meal Short termPhnom Penh, CambodiaSun dried 3 days; ground 5 mm

2 months88.421.412.53222.99.4Borin et al. 2005 Leaf mealLong termPhnom Penh, CambodiaSun dried 3 days; ground 5 mm 2 months88.922.913.635.626.47.4Borin et al. 2005

LeafUmudike, NigeriaSun dried 3 days9325.15.57.951.96.11.8Ukanw et al. 2009 LeafKM95 (bitter)VietnamSun dried91.230.928.8 LeafKM94 (bitter)VietnamSun dried91.227.730.4 LeafSweetVietnamSun dried92.131.331.9 LeafWhite Rose (H226) Tamil Nadu, IndiaShade dry, ground 1 mm 19.210.620.648.431.69.239.49.3Muru- geswari et al. 2006 LeafMulluvadi (MVD-1)Tamil Nadu, IndiaShade dry, ground 1 mm

21.99.714.742.727.66.646.68.1Muru- geswari et al. 2009 Leaf, dryThailand3–4 months902518.35.929.624.14.744.210Wanapat 2003 HayThailand3–4 months86.325226.244.330.35.84812.5Wanapat 2003 Leaf hayWhite Rose (H226)

Tamil Nadu, IndiaShade dry 2 days20.79.819.947.730.59.342.58.8Muru- geswari et al. 2008 Leaf hayMulluvadi (MVD-1)Tamil Nadu, IndiaShade dry 2 days14.743.627.67.647.67.9Muru- geswari et al. 2011 Literature average90.027.022.928.57.414.534.026.47.839.942.96.81.8 Foliage,

de- hydrated n = 3 to 27 Global database

89.625.5717.142.2311.74.98.419.7

Heuzé 2012

Leaf, freshThailandHarvest 1 month and 2 months 16.428.542.725.910.47.7Wanapat 2003 Leaf, freshThailandHarvest 2 months and 2 months

18.824.248.33111.86.7Wanapat 2003 Leaf, freshThailandHarvest 4 months and 1 month 18.928.749.232.112.67Wanapat 2003 Leaf, freshThailandHarvest 4 months and 2 months

22.420.8563813.65.2Wanapat 2003 Leaf, freshKM95 (bitter)VietnamFresh26.43328.8

Leaf, freshKM94 (bitter)VietnamFresh27.526.130.4 Leaf, freshSweetVietnamFresh24.233.431.9 Leaf, freshVietnamFresh26.223.315.4Tram and Preston 2004 Literature average22.627.330.449.131.812.16.7 Foliage, fresh n = 4 to 54 Global database

22.524.96.817.742.327.29.47.419.9

Heuzé 2012

Leaf, wiltedVietnamWilted 8 hr in shade and overnight

60.523.112.2Tram and Preston 2004 Leaf silageSweetTanga, TanzaniaSilage, pH 4.8542.921.947.855.642.9Kavana et al. 2005 Leaf silageCambodiaHarvest 2 months, pH 438.524.525.4Chhay T et al. 2003 Leaf silageCambodiaHarvest 5 months, pH 3.9 34.223.623.5Chhay T et al. 2003 Leaf silageWhite Rose (H226)

Tamil Nadu, IndiaWilted 3 hr, chop, pH 4.818.810.121.246.529.78.239.49.6Muru- geswari et al. 2007 Leaf silageMulluvadi (MVD-1)Tamil Nadu, IndiaWilted 3 hr, chop, pH 4.720.39.516.143.628.87.944.28.1Muru- geswari et al. 2010 Leaf silageShort TermPhnom Penh, CambodiaEnsiled (wilted 1–2 h, chopped 3–6 mm)

2 months49.520.814.434.924.110.6Borin et al. 2005 Leaf silageLong TermPhnom Penh, CambodiaEnsiled (wilted 1–2 h, chopped 3–6 mm) 2 months53.520.714.735.323.55.7Borin et al. 2005 Leaf silageVietnamSilage, pH 3.5–4.0; 14 days

34.525.610.516.8Du Thanh Hang 1998 Literature average42.222.047.810.016.637.829.88.141.88.5 Foliage, ensiledn = 2 to 8

Global database

24.423.88.317.942.530.38.47.920

Heuzé 2012

PeelSweetAkure, NigeriaInnoculated fermented93.621.52.111.751.17.2Oboh 2006 PeelSweetAkure, NigeriaNaturally fermented94.311.13.56.567.36Oboh 2006 PeelSweetAkure, NigeriaUnfermented94.98.23.112.564.66.4Oboh 2006 PeelBitterTewe 1991 PeelSweetTewe 1991 Peel mealDried, ground88.74.350.212711Nwok and Ekhosuehi, 2005 PeelOgbomoso, NigeriaDried 85.73.281.7217.185228.4770.7819.25.73Asaolu et al. 2012 PeelUmudike, NigeriaSun dried 3–5 days87.64.92.116.6718.51.82Ukanw et al. 2009 PeelWT (wild type)Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground 94.63.259.02.212.29.00.879.34.3Mutayoba et al. 2012 Peelp770Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground

90.514.991.03.820.714.82.455.96.9Mutayoba et al. 2012 Peelp768Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground 91.912.586.02.620.015.03.360.56.4Mutayoba et al. 2012 Peelp746Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground

92.98.080.02.215.612.62.769.95.9Mutayoba et al. 2012 PeelNigeriaDried89.25.61.020.923.714.267.64.9Asaolu et al. 2012 Literature average90.17.179.02.015.324.015.72.366.470.97.13.8 Peel, de- hydratedn = 1 to 8

Global database

87.45.21.41451.437.48.45.819.5

Heuzé 2012

Peel, freshn = 2 to 7

Global database

28.24.81.32119.617.17.25.717.7

Heuzé 2012

TuberWT (wild type)Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground 97.42.475.00.95.53.20.686.82.3Mutayoba et al. 2012 Tuberp770Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground

88.94.791.01.26.33.81.286.22.2Mutayoba et al. 2012

Tuberp768Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground 94.25.583.01.18.56.51.281.74.0Mutayoba et al. 2012 Tuberp746Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground

94.28.691.01.411.18.50.673.46.5Mutayoba et al. 2012 Pulp, dehydratedThailandCollected from 5 starch plants

88.52.40.41440.627.750.25.816.1Kossom et al. 2009 Pulp, dehydratedThailandDried93.22.1063.680.1414.6057.53.0Khempaka et al. 2009 Pulp, dehydrated1.550.1227.7536.79.83.969.91.7Sriroth et al. 2000 in Khempaka et al. 2009 Tuber chip silageVietnamSilage422.252.5Hang 1998 Composite pelletIbadan, NigeriaWhole tuber, leaf and petiole

89.810.51.423.457.66.7 Literature average92.73.963.785.00.718.818.19.91.582.059.23.616.1 Tubers, de- hydrated

n = 50 to 3354 Global database

87.62.90.73.98.05.41.780.42.43.916.8 Tubers, Freshn = 11 to 12Global database37.82.60.83.77.85.31.680.82.817.1 Tubers, Peeled, Fresh

n = 228.52.20.613.71.603.816.7 Pomace, dehydratedn = 1 to 1289.22.20.616.736.719.33.652.33.34.316.2 Pomace, freshn = 213.11.71.317.73.717.7 Sievate, dehydratedn = 1886.81.10.72.4292.172.51.217.2 All values (except dry matter (DM) on a DM basis.

Table A2. Amino acid concentrations in tubers from Brazilian cassava (M. esculenta) hybrids FractionVarietyLocaleTreatment

Crude protein (N × 3.24)

Crude protein STD calc (N × 6.25)

AspThrSerGluGlyAlaCysValMetIsoLeuTyrPheLysHisArgPro Amino acids expressed as % of crude protein (calculated as N × 3.24) TuberICB 300-34Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried5.7811.155.20.80.758.50021.12.400.30.3000010.70 TuberICB 300-18Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried5.7111.014.92.42.743.72.614.20.92.51.41.31.903.11.73.210.53 TuberICB 300-38Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried5.6410.883.52.22.930.32.89.83.300.911.501.410.25.321.13.9 TuberICB 300-12Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried5.3310.287.53.94.521.608.220.23.40.41.84.503.70.9019.20 TuberICB 300 TEBrasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried5.099.827.82.44.53.115.21.12.91.61.32.104.41.9519.47.5 TuberICB 300-7Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried4.358.395.22.23.422.22.914.110.92.41.11.21.802.92.24.528.54.5 TuberICB 300-17Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried3.887.482.822.623.32.7112.10.30.71.11.601.584.633.32.6 TuberICB 300Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried3.56.753.21.52.5341.67.83.53.13.31.92.502.91.65.723.81 TuberICB 300-3Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried3.446.643.72.74.845.91.96.90.62.60.91.31.301.91.72.817.73.3 TuberICB 300-37Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried3.426.6010.61.12.226.52.71.78.72.44.50.60.702.41.6034.40 TuberICB 300-5Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried3.065.903.72.23.228.42.16.854.74.72.43.20.93.31.93.823.10.6 TuberICB 300 TE-2Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried2.564.9442.33.22.51212.81.61.3203.222.720.23.8 TuberICB 300 TE-12Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried2.514.847.32.12.62.510.402.70.61.21.902.51.34.16.94.4 TuberICB 300-10Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried2.54.825.53.42.733.33.114.90.82.51.61.61.903.11.93.215.25.1 TuberICB 300 TE-15Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried2.364.556.82.33.7310.81.22.71.71.42.102.11.62.64.57.6 Tuber530 (local) cultivarBrasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried2.34.444.11.62.651.92.38.51.12.41.50.91.301.91.83.912.22 TuberICB 300 TE-10Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried2.294.425.134.65.316.71.84.22.11.9303.93.45.315.83 TuberICB 300-25Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried2.164.173.92.23.642.72.77.50.52.11.21.21.602.32.23.718.64 TuberICB 300 TE-16Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried1.973.806.93.23.9416.81.54.21.61.62.804.11.939.44.5 TuberICB 300 TE-8Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried1.83.474.52.331.88.61.62.50.71.11.602.51.7426.61.7 Average3.486.725.312.293.2024.235.905.984.542.041.601.611.211.182.213.127.1815.042.31 Data from Gomes and Nassar (2013).

Table A3. Mineral concentrations in various fractions of cassava (M. esculenta) cultivars used in livestock feeding programs FractionVarietyLocaleTreatmentAgeCaPNaMgKSCuFeMnZnReference Unit (dry basis)g/100 gg/100 gg/100 gg/100 gg/100 gg/100 gmg/kgmg/kgmg/kgmg/kg Leaf meal concentrateM. utilissimaNigeriaPulped fresh, pressed, heat extracted, sun dried

1.120.220.150.05Eggum, 1970 Leaf meal concentratePão da China (31)Lavras, BrazilHeat extracted, 80ºC 15 min

0.40.20.10.20.69.8188.56091Modesti et al. 2007 Leaf meal concentratePão da China (33)Lavras, BrazilAcid extracted, pH 40.40.30.040.10.616.1154.42740Modesti et al. 2007 Leaf meal concentrate residue

Pão da ChinaLavras, BrazilHeat extract residue1.60.10.40.50.14.247.944498Modesti et al. 2007 Leaf meal concentrate residue

Pão da ChinaLavras, BrazilAcid extract residue1.60.10.40.50.15.349.6397111Modesti et al. 2007 Literature average1.020.180.150.200.330.358.85110.1232.085.0 Leaf meal1.450.45Ravindran 1993 Leaf mealWT (wild type)Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground0.990.330.020.321.340.4278621757Mutayoba et al. 2012 Leaf mealp770Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground0.760.360.020.271.70.3677313351Mutayoba et al. 2012 Leaf mealp768Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground1.20.330.010.321.630.244947750Mutayoba et al. 2012 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

12 months1.90.30.21.60.38.6212.166.551.7Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

15 months1.90.30.21.60.48.1141.8165.267.1Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh 17 months2.20.30.21.20.36.1120.1145.764.1Wobeto et al. 2006

Leaf mealMaracanãLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

12 months1.20.30.21.60.412202.9102.342.8Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMaracanãLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

15 months1.20.30.21.30.39.4125.4168.240Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMaracanãLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

17 months1.20.30.21.10.429.1126192.945.5Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMANTIACLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

12 months1.60.30.21.50.48.5216.4122.243.6Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMANTIACLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

15 months1.60.30.21.40.37.8135.4138.135.8Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMANTIACLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

17 months1.60.30.21.20.36139.111537.6Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealIAC 289-70Lavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

12 months1.60.30.31.50.410.1224.5126.350.6Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealIAC 289-71Lavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

15 months1.70.30.31.40.34.1203.5141.454.2Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealIAC 289-72Lavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

17 months1.80.20.41.60.37.6152.2128.251.6Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

12 months10.30.31.60.410.3225.615852.4Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh

15 months1.20.30.31.50.38.1132.8190.163.2Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh 17 months1.10.30.31.30.47.3148.6163.564.1Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf meal61584 Ohupon (bitter)NigeriaSun dried0.620.30.10.28Eggum, 1970

Leaf mealGCH (bitter)NigeriaSun dried0.680.310.10.31Eggum, 1970 Leaf meal44086 Congo (Panja sweet)NigeriaSun dried0.750.30.140.29Eggum, 1970 Leaf mealPão da ChinaLavras, BrazilDried ambient temp 6 days, rinsed, ground

1.10.30.31.60.310.798.418893Modesti et al. 2007 HayThailand3–4 months2.40.3Wanapat 2003 LeafThailandDried3–4 months1.50.4Wanapat 2003 LeafWhite Rose (H226)Tamil Nadu, IndiaShade dry, ground 1 mm2.30.30.829.529Murugeswari et al. 2006 Leaf silageWhite Rose (H226)Tamil Nadu, IndiaWilted 3 hr, chop, pH 4.82.30.30.730.229.6Murugeswari et al. 2007 Leaf hayWhite Rose (H226)Tamil Nadu, IndiaShade dry 2 days2.50.30.831.330.1Murugeswari et al. 2008 LeafMulluvadi (MVD-1)Tamil Nadu, IndiaShade dry, ground 1 mm2.40.30.728.920.3Murugeswari et al. 2009 Leaf silageMulluvadi (MVD-1)Tamil Nadu, IndiaWilted 3 hr, chop, pH 4.72.50.30.830.129.4Murugeswari et al. 2010 Leaf hayMulluvadi (MVD-1)Tamil Nadu, IndiaShade dry 2 days2.60.40.931.336.4Murugeswari et al. 2011 Leaf20 linesCali, ColombiaDried, ground1.20.30.0010.710.37.394.467.951.6Chavez et al. 2000 Literature averagen = 301.570.310.060.391.430.3413.9147.6140.347.8 Foliage, dehydratedn = 1 to 5Global database2.090.320.7523.0500.051.030.0Heuzé 2012 Foliage, ensiledn = 2 Global database2.510.330.8631.033.0Heuzé 2012 Foliage, freshn = 2 to 33Global database1.190.370.060.731.2529.025.0Heuzé 2012 Foliage, wiltedn = 1Global database1.400.30Heuzé 2012

Database av1.800.330.060.781.2527.7500.051.029.3 erage

PeelSweetAkure, NigeriaInnoculated fermented0.030.040.050.01Oboh 2006 PeelSweetAkure, NigeriaNaturally fermented0.030.040.060.01Oboh 2006 PeelSweetAkure, NigeriaUnfermented0.030.040.050.01Oboh 2006 Peel mealDried, ground1.330.44Nwokoro and Ekhosuehi, 2005 PeelWT (wild type)Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground0.690.110.010.081.250.09<1.0521220Mutayoba et al. 2012 Peelp770Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground1.150.150.030.21.520.336669740Mutayoba et al. 2012 Peelp768Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground1.250.140.020.171.30.293666335Mutayoba et al. 2012 Peelp746Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground0.850.120.020.141.460.182444340Mutayoba et al. 2012 Literature average0.670.190.030.150.810.223.757.053.819.3 Peels, dryn = 3Global database0.450.080.110.71Heuzé 2012 Peels, freshn = 1 to 2Global database0.170.210.030.060.640150Heuzé 2012

Database av0.310.150.030.090.680.0015.000.00 erage Tuber20 linesCali,Dried, ground0.060.10.0070.10.90.032.29.61.26.4Chavez et al. Colombia2000 TuberThailandCollected from 5 starch plants

0.80.02Kossoom et al. 2009 TuberThailandDried0.10.1Khempaka et al. 2009 TuberWT (wild type)Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground0.060.130.020.071.130.02314126Mutayoba et al. 2012 Tuberp770Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground0.060.130.040.070.870.0439106Mutayoba et al. 2012 Tuberp768Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground0.140.180.060.151.730.03410238Mutayoba et al. 2012

Tuberp746Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground0.190.190.070.153.040.035122510Mutayoba et al. 2012 Literature average0.200.120.040.111.530.033.410.914.27.3 Tubers, dehydratedn = 3 to 125Global database0.170.110.030.090.995242333Heuzé 2012 Tubers, freshn = 7 to 8Global database0.160.120.110.77Heuzé 2012 Tubers, peeled, freshn = 1Global database0.100.04Heuzé 2012 Sievate, dehydratedn = 17–18Global database0.140.020.040.070.1

Database average (tubers)

0.140.070.030.090.625.024.023.033.0 Pomace, dehydratedn = 1 to 7Global database0.740.040.120559102Heuzé 2012 Pomace, freshn = 1 to 2Global database0.560.140.010.010.01116Heuzé 2012

Database average (pomace)

0.650.090.010.0650.015.5282.5102 Data from Gomes and Nassar (2013).

Table A4. Vitamin concentrations in various fractions of cassava (M. esculenta) cultivars used in livestock feeding programs FractionVarietyLocaleTreatmentAgeVitamin C mg/100 g

ß-caroteneTotal carotenePolyphenols Reference Unit of measuremg/100 gmg/100 gmg/g Leaf mealWT (wild type)Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground23.477.4Mutayoba et al. 2012 Leaf mealp770Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground27.688.2Mutayoba et al. 2012 Leaf mealp768Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground732.5Mutayoba et al. 2012 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilDried 30ºC, ground, no petioles10 months281.550.229.5Simão et al. 2013 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, Brazil12 months294.870.352.1Simão et al. 2013 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, Brazil14 months521.365.955.1Simão et al. 2013 Leaf mealUflaLavras, BrazilDried 30ºC, ground, no petioles10 months149.353.129.1Simão et al. 2013 Leaf mealUflaLavras, Brazil12 months249.770.154.5Simão et al. 2013 Leaf mealUflaLavras, Brazil14 months474.165.650.1Simão et al. 2013 Leaf mealPão da ChinaLavras, BrazilDried 30ºC, ground, no petioles10 months244.765.929.2Simão et al. 2013 Leaf mealPão da ChinaLavras, Brazil12 months277.072.755.6Simão et al. 2013 Leaf mealPão da ChinaLavras, Brazil14 months568.661.656.2Simão et al. 2013 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilDried 30ºC, ground, no petioles10 months171.451.816.5Simão et al. 2013 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, Brazil12 months310.968.831.7Simão et al. 2013 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, Brazil14 months463.751.436.3Simão et al. 2013 Leaf mealMocotó12 months55.7126.644.1Wobeto et al. 2006

Leaf mealOuro do Vale12 months64.1124.461.5Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealBalanaOven-dried 30ºC84.8Corrêa 2004 Leaf mealBalanaShade-dried64.9Corrêa 2004 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh12 months64.1124.261.5Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh15 months50.354.952.3Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh17 months175.491.892.3Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMaracanãLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh12 months61.3137.443.4Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMaracanãLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh15 months100.970.975.3Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMaracanãLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh17 months181.992.5106.4Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMANTIACLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh12 months67.3113.848.6Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMANTIACLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh15 months51.650.460.5Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMANTIACLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh17 months14058.595.8Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealIAC 289-70Lavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh12 months43.6131.147.3Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealIAC 289-71Lavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh15 months48.560.259.7Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealIAC 289-72Lavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh17 months9582.871.2Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh12 months55.7126.644.1Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh15 months75.158.978.9Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh17 months141.766.679.9Wobeto et al. 2006 Leaf 500 linesCali, ColombiaDried, ground12048.3Chavez et al. 2000 Leaf60 to 370*Montagnac et al. 2009

PeelWT (wild type)Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground94.60.010.01Mutayoba et al. 2012 Peelp770Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground90.50.0010.01Mutayoba et al. 2012 Peelp768Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground91.90.50.5Mutayoba et al. 2012 Peelp746Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground92.90.40.5Mutayoba et al. 2012 Tuber 500 linesCali, ColombiaDried, ground9.50.23Chavez et al. 2000 Tuber 01/1371 High BCIbadan, NigeriaFresh12 months?4.1Thakkar et al. 2009 Tuber 01/1412 High BCIbadan, NigeriaFresh12 months?3.2Thakkar et al. 2009 Tuber 01/1663 High BCIbadan, NigeriaFresh12 months?2.8Thakkar et al. 2009 Tuber WT (wild type)Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground97.40.0030.004661Mutayoba et al. 2012 Tuber p770Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground88.90.0700.078Mutayoba et al. 2012 Tuber p768Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground94.20.0370.043Mutayoba et al. 2012 Tuber p746Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground94.20.0900.101Mutayoba et al. 2012 Tuber ~15 to 50*Montagnac et al. 2009 *Presumed to be reported on a dry basis.

Table A5. Secondary metabolite concentrations in various cassava (M. esculenta) cultivars/fractions FractionYield (% of plant)VarietyLocaleTreatmentAgeCyanideCondensed Tannins (eq catechin)

Tannins (eq tannic acid)

NitrateOxalatePhytateReference Unit (dry basis)mg/kg%g/kg mg/100 gg/100 gmg/100 g Leaf mealp770Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground1325Mutayoba et al. 2012 Leaf mealp768Puerto RicoStored frozen, dried, ground227Mutayoba et al. 2012 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh12 months11.374.62.5Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh15 months20.92.2Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealOuro do ValeLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh17 months29.22.9Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealMaracanãLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh12 months19.374.31.5Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealMaracanãLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh15 months181.6Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealMaracanãLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh17 months351.4Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealMANTIACLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh12 months10.888.71.9Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealMANTIACLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh15 months162Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealMANTIACLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh17 months34.52Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealIAC 289-70Lavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh12 months13.843.11.9Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealIAC 289-70Lavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh15 months12.52.5Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealIAC 289-70Lavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh17 months12.42.5Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh12 months12.543.21.4Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh15 months201.8Wobeto et al. 2007

Leaf mealMocotóLavras, BrazilShade dry, no petiole, 40 mesh17 months31.61.4Wobeto et al. 2007 Leaf mealMS6Abeokuta, NigeriaShade dried, milled 1 mm83.71Oni et al. 2010 Leaf mealTMS 30555Abeokuta, NigeriaShade dried, milled 1 mm58.51.4Oni et al. 2011 Leaf mealTMS 30572Abeokuta, NigeriaShade dried, milled 1 mm78.62.2Oni et al. 2012 Leaf mealIdileruwaAbeokuta, NigeriaShade dried, milled 1 mm86.73.8Oni et al. 2013 HayThailand383.9Wanapat 2003 LeafThailandDried3–4 months464.3Wanapat 2003 LeafSweetTanga, TanzaniaFresh3–4 months289Kavana et al. 2005 LeafThailandHarvest 1 month and 2 months

1 month and 2 months5Wanapat 2003 LeafThailandHarvest 2 months and 2 months

2 months and 2 months5.2Wanapat 2003 LeafThailandHarvest 4 months and 1 month

4 months and 1 month2.9Wanapat 2003 LeafThailandHarvest 4 months and 2 months

4 months and 2 months5.5Wanapat 2003 Leaf meal 23 T/ha/ yr; 3.7 T protein

Short termPhnom Penh, CambodiaSun dried 3 days; ground 5 mm2 months203/545Borin et al. 2005 Leaf24 T/ha/ yr; 3.7 T protein Short termPhnom Penh, CambodiaEnsiled (wilted 1-2 h, chopped 3-6 mm)

2 months122/545Borin et al. 2005 Leaf meal25 T/ha/ yr; 3.7 T protein

Long termPhnom Penh, CambodiaSun dried 3 days; ground 5 mm2 months273/408Borin et al. 2005 Leaf26 T/ha/ yr; 3.7 T protein Long termPhnom Penh, CambodiaEnsiled (wilted 1-2 h, chopped 3-6 mm) 2 months94/408Borin et al. 2005

LeafVietnamFresh269Tram and Preston 2004 LeafVietnamWilted42Tram and Preston 2004 LeafVietnamFresh177Hang 1998 Leaf silageVietnamSilage, pH 3.5- 4.0; 14 days60.9Hang 1998 LeafWhite Rose (H226)Tamil Nadu, IndiaShade dry, ground 1 mm1934Murugeswari et al. 2006HCN dr to 193 in 24 hr Leaf silageWhite Rose (H226)Tamil Nadu, IndiaWilted 3 hr, chop107Murugeswari et al. 2007 Leaf hayWhite Rose (H226)Tamil Nadu, IndiaShade dry 2 days51.8Murugeswari et al. 2008 LeafMulluvadi (MVD-1)Tamil Nadu, IndiaShade dry, ground 1 mm1143Murugeswari et al. 2009 Leaf silageMulluvadi (MVD-1)Tamil Nadu, IndiaWilted 3 hr, chop72.4Murugeswari et al. 2010 Leaf hayMulluvadi (MVD-1)Tamil Nadu, IndiaShade dry 2 days87.1Murugeswari et al. 2011 Leaf silageSweetTanga, TanzaniaSilage, pH 4.8520.1Kavana et al. 2005 Leaf silageCambodiaHarvest 2 months, pH 4200Chhay Ty et al. 2003 Leaf silageCambodiaHarvest 5 months, pH 3.997.2Chhay Ty et al. 2003 Leaf + tuber chipsSweetTanga, TanzaniaFresh mixture178Kavana et al. 2005 Leaf, fresh2650– 7200Apata and Babalola 2012

Database average Foliage, n = 1 to 3Global database2.020.1Heuzé 2012 dehydrated Foliage, freshn = 4 to 11Global database2.6365.9Heuzé 2012 Peel11-15% SweetAkure, NigeriaInnoculated 3 days pulp fermentedpure culture, 7 days peel

6.2789.7Oboh 2006

PeelSweetAkure, NigeriaNaturally fermented3 days pulp no added, 7 days peel fermentation

23.3705.1Oboh 2006 PeelSweetAkure, NigeriaUnfermented44.61043.6Oboh 2006 PeelNigeria32.93.933823.8Aro et al. 2010 PeelBitterNigeria650Tewe 1991 PeelSweetNigeria200Tewe 1991 PeelNase 2Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months703Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelNase 3Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months653Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelNase 10Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months556Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelNase 11Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months384Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelNase 12Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months253Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelPDB Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months870Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelBitterTongoloKampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months971Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelBitterOgwak (local)Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months1081Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelMH/96 1319Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months466Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 Peel97/NAKampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months256Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002

PeelMH/96 1425Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months543Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 Peel95/SE 00087Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months628Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelAH 96 0264Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months290Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 Peel97/NA 0024Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months463Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelMixed n = 12Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months843Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelMixed n = 11Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months795Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelMixed n = 10Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months964Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 PeelMixed n = 10Kampala, UgandaFreshly peeled9 months822Tweyongyere and Katongole 2002 Peel, fresh1300- 2250Apata and Babalola 2012 Peel, freshBitterNECRI, NigeriaFreshly peeled70.20.67Akpabio et al. 2012 Peel, freshBitterNECRI, NigeriaFreshly peeled45.80.68Akpabio et al. 2012 Peel, driedSweetNECRI, NigeriaFreshly peeled, dried288.40.22Akpabio et al. 2012 Peel, driedSweetNECRI, NigeriaFreshly peeled, dried304.40.16Akpabio et al. 2012

Database average Peels, freshn = 1 to 2Global database0.5529.4Heuzé 2012 Pomace, freshn = 1 Global database25.3Heuzé 2012

Tuber chipsSweetTanga, TanzaniaFresh71.9Kavana et al. 2005 Tuber chip silageSweetTanga, TanzaniaSilage17.2Kavana et al. 2005 Tuber chip silageVietnamSilage95.9Hang 1998 TuberBitter310Tewe 1991 TuberSweet38Tewe 1991 TuberThailand4.2Kosoom et al. 2009 TuberWT (wild type)Puerto Rico960.06Mutayoba et al. 2012 Tuberp770Puerto Rico110Mutayoba et al. 2012 Tuberp768Puerto Rico127Mutayoba et al. 2012 Tuberp746Puerto Rico141Mutayoba et al. 2012 TuberICB 300-34Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried98.5Gomes and Nassar 2013 TuberICB 300-18Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried132.1Gomes and Nassar 2014 TuberICB 300-38Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried99.9Gomes and Nassar 2015 TuberICB 300-12Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried56.3Gomes and Nassar 2016 TuberICB 300 TEBrasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried130.6Gomes and Nassar 2017 TuberICB 300-7Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried54.9Gomes and Nassar 2018 TuberICB 300-17Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried93.3Gomes and Nassar 2019 TuberICB 300Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried83.2Gomes and Nassar 2020 TuberICB 300-3Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried110.3Gomes and Nassar 2021 TuberICB 300-37Brasilia, BrazilFreeze-dried172.6Gomes and Nassar 2022