Environmental sub-context II: Human-environment interaction

There is limited evidence of Upper Palaeolithic occupation in Cumbria, with bone points found at Crosby-on-Eden (Hodgson 1895) and lithic material from Kirkhead Cave (near Grange) that date to around 11,000-9500 BC (Young 2002). Elk antlers, from the site, date to 11,027-10,077 cal. BC (Gale & Hunt 1985). Upper Palaeolithic blades have been found at Lindale Low cave

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(Sailsbury 1988; Hodgkinson et al. 2000; Barrowclough 2010, 61). Most of the Palaeolithic evidence suggests that occupation remained close to the coast, and was concerned with hunting.

Figure 4.4 Great Gable (left), Haystacks (right), Buttermere (centre) Peat formation at high altitude and treeless mountains are likely a different sight than those of the Neolithic

wayfarer (Photo, R. Smith).

By the Mesolithic period, there is evidence of human-environment interaction, as pollen from plants such as Plantago and Pteridium suggest woodland clearance. The evidence comes from a number of sites: Burnfoothill Moss (Tipping 1995), Thwaite House Moss (Middleton et al.

1995, 187), Oulton Moss (Simmons and Innes 1987) and Bowness Common (Hodgson & Brennand 2006). All of these sites show evidence of forest clearance occuring around 6000- 5000 BC (Barrowclough 2010, 62). Evidence suggests that the first occupation, on the Eden

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Flood plain, took place as early as 5632 cal. BC (Evans 2004, 22). Macroscopic charcoal from north Cumbria (Hughes 1997),and the north west wetland survey, date fire disturbances occurring and becoming more common from 6080-5790 cal. BC - along with a growth of upland peat (Figure 4.4) which peaked at 5240-4940 cal. BC (Barrowclough 2010, 62; Hodgkinson et al 2000). However, one must be careful when assigning anthropogenic causality to processes that may have been natural.

The material culture from this period (although sparse) is mostly related to the making of tools with a Late Mesolithic, triangular Microlith from Carlisle, and a convex edge blade (Fell 1985) This suggests that human activity was taking place by the Late Mesolithic (Barrowclough 2010, 63), as adoptions to changing flora (the development of mixed deciduous woodlands) and fauna (smaller animals such as wild pig, cow and dear) were reflected in the Mesolithic tool kit. Barrowclough suggests that the Eskmeal area may be a possible residential site; drawing on the research by Bonsall (1981) who dates birch bark from Williamson Moss to 5555± 40 BP. Here, possible wooden house platforms suggest the beginnings of permanent settlement, or dwelling, for longer periods in the Late Mesolithic.

The transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic in Cumbria (around the start of the 4th millennium BC) can be seen from the pollen evidence, as open space in the woodland canopy became more common (Barrowclough 2010, 74) with an increase in cereal ‘type’ pollen from around 4900-4500 cal BC (Edwards & Hirons 1984). By the 4th millennium, there is evidence that, along with other regions of Western Britain and Ireland, Mesolithic life gradually became more marginalised in favour of a greater emphasis on ritual and burial activity (although the slow and adaptive nature of this transition must be emphasised; many technological features of the Mesolithic persisting, over time (Evans 2004, 126).

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During the 4th millennium BC, simultaneous developments across Britain began with cereal type pollens, a decline in elm, and more evidence of clearance activity and the building of burial/ritual monuments. In Cumbria, there is evidence of cereals in the Eden valley at Howgill Castle at 4009 cal. BC and 3577 cal. BC (Skinner 2000). However, due to the lack of evidence from other sites in the limestone east of the county, this seems to have been an abnormality, as larger scale cereal cultivation did not take place here until the Late Neolithic (Skinner 2000). To the north, at Solway Moss, cereal cultivation may have begun in the Early/Middle Neolithic- with two suggested dates of 4036-3780 cal. BC and 3340-2707 cal. BC (Barrowclough 2010, 80; Huckerby & Well 1993).

The evidence, to the west and south of the Central Fells, shows elm decline beginning at 4458 cal BC, with a second episode starting at 4047 cal. BC (Evans 2004, 23). The elm decline traditionally marked the beginning of the Neolithic (Annable 1987; Bradley & Edmonds 1993; Pennington 1970; 1975) although this threshold is now generally rejected. Moreover, there is evidence for cereal cultivation in coastal regions at 3893-3381 cal. BC (Evans 2004, 23). This supports Bradley and Edmond’s assertion that, in Cumbria, it is unwise to stress the period division between the Late Mesolithic and Early Neolithic (this theory is also supported by Evans (2004, 123-129)). To further complicate this issue, Early Neolithic sites generally became more ephemeral as time progressed (Bradley & Edmonds 1993, 136). Core evidence from upland tarns suggests that the formation of peat coincided with elm decline. Therefore, in Cumbria it might be prudent to divide early prehistory in to two periods; an Earlier Neolithic and a Late Neolithic/EBA period, with a transition date of around 3300 BC, as suggested by Bradley and Edmonds (1993, 157).

The earliest clearance episodes from the central fells occurred at Thorn Crag (with evidence of axe working) with dates of 4209-3709 cal. BC- from charcoal and an elm decline of 4100-4030 cal. BC (Evans 2008). Close to this site, minor clearances have been identified at Blea Tarn

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from 3700 cal. BC (Pennington 1970; 1975). Core samples taken from Langdale Combe suggest four episodes of clearance had taken place before the start of peat formation, which coincided with elm decline around 3800 cal. BC (Bradley & Edmonds 1993, 139). Peat formation (although thought to have been localised (Barrowclough 2010, 19)) seems to have coincided with the elm decline, in this region. The evidence for soil erosions, also from Blea Tarn and Red Tarn (Barrowclough 2010, 19; Pennington 1964; 1975) and from Thunacar Knott (Clough 1973; Pennington 1975), suggests Late Neolithic dates for erosion episodes. The coastal evidence suggests that vegetation cover remained until the mid-third millennium BC, with Abbot Moss showing episodes of forest reduction around 3500 cal. BC- with similar dates at Moorthwaite Moss (Annable 1987, 21-2).

To summarise, the evidence suggests that after the 6th millennium BC, groups of people in Cumbria were possibly involved in forest clearances or, perhaps, took advantage of clearances that occurred in both upland and low lying regions, for the purposes of hunting and gathering. Late Mesolithic occupation was small scale and consisted, essentially, of hunter-gatherer groups-who gradually adapted to their changing environmental and climatic conditions by developing different material assemblages, focused mainly on microliths, with some large tools. By the 4th _{millennium, there is evidence from the coastal regions, and the Eden Valley,}

of cereal cultivation. This fits into wider Mesolithic/Neolithic transitional models that see agriculture moving along the western seaways (Garrow & Sturt 2011). The waterways around, and into, Cumbria seem to have been important as cereal pollens and clearance seem to have spread around Cumbria-along the Solway Plain, then up the River Eden. However such cultivations were small scale, at best, and do not necessarily represent a significant shift in subsistence away from hunting and gathering, during the Early Neolithic period.

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