EPISTEMOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS

Before presenting on the research design and research process, it is necessary to clarify the underlying assumptions that directed and informed the research study. These are research choices that needed to be aligned with the ontological assumptions and the research questions.

A definition of experience has already been introduced in Chapter 2 in Paragraph 2.7.7. It is a definition based on a phenomenological view. Social constructionism aligns with this view, indeed it is founded on the phenomenology of Schutz (Berger & Luckmann, 1966: 27). The following discussion explains why this view was adopted.

4.4.1 Positioning the research study

It is important that epistemological and methodological assumptions are clearly stated. As Deetz (1996) pointed out, the aim is not to argue alternatives that profess in some way to be better or to be right nor should it suggest that a diversity of views would lead to everyone finding alternatives interesting or useful. Rather, he argued, it is important to be clear about the grounds on which research claims are made and how the claims are related to the research procedures so that there is an appreciation of why different choices are made.

It should be noted that none of the discussions cited adopt a direct comparison between quantitative and qualitative methods as this reduces the discussion to a methodological choice rather than a discussion of the underlying research philosophy and assumptions. Applying a qualitative method is an outcome arising from the underlying epistemological assumptions rather than a choice made in advance.

There are several ways in which broad research categories or paradigms are described. These are all heuristics to clarify different perspectives that may be adopted in conducting research within the social sciences and sociology. Each of these perspectives espouses different underlying assumptions or beliefs and represents different approaches to studying social science and sociology. While not directed specifically at business studies, nonetheless these debates are relevant to business, management and organisation studies.

4.4.2 Research paradigms and discourses

There are different ways in which different research paradigms are described. One of the most commonly cited is the taxonomy of Burrell and Morgan (1979), who offered a critical assessment of the various philosophical debates within the social sciences and the assumptions about the nature of society. They presented a taxonomy of four sociological paradigms and it generated much debate in the academic community. Deetz (1996) acknowledged its value in identifying alternatives to the “dominant functionalist tradition” but countered by offering his own alternative

taxonomy directed at describing research discourses related to organisation studies. His aim was to highlight the main differences among research approaches rather than differences at the level of social theory.

What is of interest in both these discussions is the consideration of some of the key choices.

Burrell and Morgan highlighted the subject/object debate. Does the research adopt a position that assumes that reality is objective and external to the individual, or a belief that reality is subjective and the product of human consciousness and human cognition? In the former, the focus of research is directed at searching for general or universal laws or nomothetic approach; whereas in the latter, studies focus on understanding “what is unique and particular to the individual” or an idiographic approach. There is also the debate that contrasts a deterministic view, which holds that human beings respond to the external world and are products of their environment, with a voluntarist view that assumes human beings are creative and exercise free will and are responsible for creating their environment.

Other issues raised by Deetz consider the origin of concepts in the research process and the nature of research practices. With regards to research process, Deetz distinguished between working with predefined problems and working with emergent ideas. In the former, the subject is defined by the researcher and directed by existing theory. In the latter, new theoretical ideas may be developed during the research process, and generated from the particular, locally situated circumstances of the research itself. In relation to research practices, Deetz contrasted a consensus view seeking similarities and integration with a dissensus approach that challenges the dominant discourse and seeks to explore difference, conflict and tensions.

While Deetz offered an alternative to Burrell and Morgan’s taxonomy, there are nonetheless areas of similarity between the two classifications. One of the differences is that Burrell and Morgan positioned the four categories as mutually exclusive paradigms, whereas Deetz positioned the four discourses as orientations so that the boundaries are more fluid. In this respect, Deetz allowed for a more open debate. Both, however, provided a similar description of the interpretive approach as voluntarist and idiographic with an interest in people as subjects rather than objects and understanding subjective experiences of everyday life. Burrell and Morgan (1979: 30) described it as a way of understanding the social world as an emergent process derived from “intersubjectively shared meanings”. Deetz also highlighted the emergent nature of interpretive research that incorporates situated practical knowledge and the narratives of the research participants. He said it is a means to explore the complexity and creativity of life rather than an instrumental view and that phenomenology and hermeneutics are both methodological approaches that align with the interpretive philosophy.

4.4.3 Highlighting key research assumptions

These are both interesting ways to categorise different research paradigms and based on these, the assumptions that align with the research interest in the lived experience of key individuals and the ontology of this research are as follows:

i) A subjective view is relevant since it is the lived experience of individuals that is the research interest. It is therefore an idiographic view, with an interest in the particular and unique aspects of individual experience.

ii) The ontology of complexity suggest that a voluntarist perspective would match the research context, rather than a deterministic view that assumes an external environment that provides a degree of stability, control and predictability.

iii) Based on the assumption of an idiographic and voluntarist approach as well as the ontology of complexity, an appropriate research approach would also allow for the emergence of research ideas from locally situated research material.

iv) With regards to the research practices, the options proposed by Deetz are either consensus seeking or exploring difference. However, rather than choosing only one of these practices, another option would be to use both together as a means to highlight new insights and understanding. While exploring difference and diversity would align with complexity, research outcomes also need to be considered and this means that there needs to be a sense of cohesion so that a conceptual framework and conclusions may be drawn. It would therefore seem appropriate to balance these divergent options and design an approach that could, in some way, accommodate both of these apparently opposing requirements. This would suggest a research design that seeks a diversity of perspectives in the fieldwork from which areas of similarity may be sought in the analysis. These areas of similarity may then form the basis of a conceptual framework, while still highlighting areas of difference.

Overall, these assumptions would place the research study within an interpretive frame. The assumptions noted above align with the interest in learning from the lived experience of key individuals.

4.4.4 Postmodern characteristics

The inclusion of multiple perspectives and an interest in difference as well as similarity suggest a tendency towards the postmodern.

Postmodernism does not have a standard meaning (Alvesson, 2002: 19) and definitions are controversial (Grbich, 2004: 17). However, Lyotard (1984: xxiii - xxv) defined the term postmodern with reference to the term ‘modern’, which he described as science that legitimises itself through a

“grand narrative” or “metadiscourse”. In comparison, he describes postmodernism as “the

incredulity toward metanarratives”, so that postmodernism questions, challenges or provides alternatives to the dominant metanarratives.

Lyotard described the characteristics of the postmodern condition and highlighted aspects including:

i) the recognition of the important role of language;

ii) how narrative knowledge exists in addition to scientific knowledge;

iii) knowledge is legitimised not only as scientific knowledge, which adopts a discourse of consensus and assumes the need for rational argument; but also that dissension and difference is an important means to stimulate innovation and new knowledge.

This research study reflects some of these broad attributes of the postmodern condition. First, the subject matter of sustainability is a grand narrative that challenges the dominant narrative of unlimited growth (Meadows, Randers & Meadows, 2004). This is particularly relevant in the context of a business supply chain where resources are consumed. Second, the research phenomenon is collaboration and this differs from the dominant narrative in business, that of competition.

Third, the research design explores the micro-level narratives of the lived experience of key individuals. This allows for a diversity of perspectives to be presented, from micro (personal level) to meso (organisational level) and macro level issues. This combination of different levels of narrative supports the contention that the research is postmodern.

Finally, the ontology of complexity reflects postmodern characteristics. Cilliers (1998: 119-122), presented a detailed comparison of the characteristics of complexity, as described previously, and those of the postmodern condition as conceptualised by Lyotard. Based on this comparison and the other arguments presented above, it may be concluded that this research study has postmodern characteristics.

4.4.5 Perspectives on the sociology of organisations

Going beyond the philosophical discussion of Burrell and Morgan and the discourses of Deetz, a more current perspective is also explored, which provides some further background in the context of organisation studies.

Godwyn and Gittell (2012) also approached the discussion of research paradigms from the perspective of organisation studies. They said that sociological paradigms were “worldviews”

derived from basic assumptions about human nature. The dimensions highlight contrasting perspectives from which people are seen as fundamentally competitive or cooperative; and people are seen to act as individuals or as collectives. They are described as rational, interactionist, conflict and functionalist. This classification is of particular interest to this study as it highlights

cooperative approaches, which may be related to the subject of collaboration. It also introduces a further dualist debate between individual and collective or micro and macro levels.

It is the interactionist view that is of particular interest here and it is sometimes called a micro-interactionist view (Knorr-Cetina, 1981). This is described by Godwyn and Gittell as a relational perspective that considers how people derive meaning from the associations they form in organisations; it is through interaction and negotiation that reality emerges. They indicated that research applying this view tends to favour a qualitative approach that explores “textual rather than numerical data”; it is a dynamic view that focuses on “the subjective experiences of actors”. The social context is also highlighted.

The interactionist view supports a socially constructed reality, which is achieved through a process of interaction with others. As a research approach, Godwyn and Gittell said that it is about theorising how “people make sense of their individual subjective experience in the shared objective world” so that “social reality mediates these two worlds”. This aligns with the description of social constructionism as described by Berger and Luckmann (1966: 30) who explored how “subjective meanings become objective facticities”. According to Godwyn and Gittell, the interactionist perspective is derived from pragmatism, symbolic interactionism and social psychology. Although not specifically mentioned by Godwyn and Gittell, social constructionism shares these philosophical roots and draws from these same sources.

The interactionist perspective has a focus on relational processes that mediate between the subjective world of individual meaning and the objective world of shared meaning. Organisations are seen to be “a set of ongoing interactions and emerging relationships” in which people negotiate and construct an understanding of the world (Godwyn & Gittell, 2012).

4.4.6 Mapping research perspectives to the characteristics of complexity

Table 4.2 below maps the characteristics of complexity with the descriptions of the research paradigms and discourses in order to indicate how the epistemological positioning for the research was identified in relation to the ontology of complexity. The first column is taken from Table 4.1 and the additional column in relation to the epistemological assumptions is added along with the related references as discussed in Paragraph 4.4.3 above.

Assumptions that need to be incorporated into the research design include the idiographic view as well as an interactionist, relational approach and again difference is highlighted. The time dimension should also be recognised in the design; assumptions about change and how systems adapt also require consideration.

Table 4.2: Relating complexity to epistemological assumptions

Diversity and difference – difference as a function of relationships – a network of relationships but require constraints such as structure and boundaries

The epistemological position that incorporates both interpretive and interactionist characteristics, along with these various dimensions, is social constructionism and this is therefore described in more detail below.

4.5 EPISTEMOLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS BASED ON SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM