3.1 Introduction
Chapter 2 established the predominance of em otional culture and the
significance of therapeutic and psychological discourse as methods o f m eaning making. B uilding on this foundational w ork, Chapter 3 dem onstrates the connection between subjective wellbeing, em otional developm ent and
m indfulness practice. Specifically, it establishes th a t developing self-awareness using m indfulness practice is an effective w ay to develop em otional competence, due to the capacity o f m indfulness practice to mediate 'psychosom atic'
awareness. The chapter draws upon a grow ing body of theoretical and em pirical m indfulness research p a rtic u la rly w ith in the field o f health research, w h ere the efficacy o f m indfulness practice has been proven in m yriad clinical contexts. It delineates contem porary m indfulness practice through an elucidation o f the associated Buddhist context that is foundational. Thus dem onstrating its v a lid ity as a psychospiritual practice. The psychosomatic connection w ith the em otions and the im portance o f developing em otional competence as a fo rm o f
intrapersonal com m unication to im prove eudaemonic wellbeing, in particu la r, is also established. Essentially, the psychospiritual nature o f m indfulness is
elucidated to establish its v a lid ity for use as p a rt o f the em pirical research th a t follows.
If we follow the Oxford English D ictionary (OED) online, at its m ost basic, mindfulness can be understood in tw o ways: [i] 'The state or q u a lity o f being m indful; attention; m em ory; intention, purpose' and (ii) 'the m editative state o f being both fu lly aware o f the m om ent and o f being self-conscious o f and
attentive to this awareness; a state of intense concentration on one's ow n thought processes; self-awareness'. The la tte r d e fin itio n correlates d ire c tly w ith mindfulness practice as explicated below, and the fo rm e r w ith elucidations o f the phenomenon. Significantly, the firs t d e fin itio n describes the state o f being
m indful and alludes to a m oral aspect, in terms o f in te n tio n and purpose, and this is useful in establishing m indfulness as a practice that coheres w ith the ethos o f the subjective turn. M indfulness is connected w ith awareness o f the present and consciousness o f th a t awareness. It is reflexive and reflective, concerned w ith the a b ility to recall in fo rm a tio n and experience, and from this perspective it is
d ire ctly connected w ith 'action', both cognitive and behavioural. It is a means o f m o n ito rin g one's pyschospiritual and psychosomatic self, w ith o u t applying value-laden judgm ent. It raises self-awareness b ut as elucidated below, it is n o t identical w ith it.
Even from these superficial definitions, it is possible to begin to grasp the com plexity of the term 'm indfulness' w hich corresponds w ith a cognitive state, a personality tra it, and a m editative practice. Consequently it is advantageous to distinguish the psychological phenomenon from the practice, as far as possible. However, the interrela ted nature o f the tw o makes a discrete
com partm entalisation im plausible, and therefore the d e fin ition s in e vita b ly intersect to some extent, in the in te rro g a tio n that follows.
3.2.1 Differentiating Mindfulness fro m Self-Awareness
Mindfulness is defined as 'a non-judgm ental, non-discursive awareness o f one's perceptions, sensations, thoughts, and emotions', a generic descrip tion th a t matches many to be found w ith in the m indfulness lite rature, in general [Evans, Baer and Segerstrom, 2009, 379). However, atypically it is also d iffe re n tia te d from self-awareness, and in p a rticu la r 'priva te self-consciousness' and 'pu blic self-consciousness [ibid.). The form er is awareness of personal 'thoughts, feelings and private m o tiva tio n s’, and consists o f a com bination o f's e lf reflectiveness' and 'in te rn a l state awareness', whereas 'public self-
consciousness' is awareness of one's self in social situations [ib id .). It has been suggested from clinical tria ls that private self-consciousness correlates w ith negative emotional states such as anxiety, whereas the la tte r is m ore lik e ly to be 'ne utral or adaptive' [ibid.). Private self-consciousness constitutes a form o f m trapersonal com m unication and public self-consciousness a fo rm of interpersonal com munication.
Self-awareness is associated w ith 'self-regulation th e o ry’ and the a b ility to regulate subjective behaviour in accordance w ith personal standards to the degree that one is self-aware [ibid.). Self-awareness results in self-judgm ent, comparison, and the desire to effect change, because it is a tte n tio n focused on the self and as such it highlights discrepancy between oneself and one's
standards [see Silvia and Duval, 2001; Fenigstein, Scheier and Buss, 1975; Duval and W icklund, 1972). Self-awareness is dependent upon self-reflection, w hich, as stated, can result in self-judgm ent and therefore be detrim ental to wellbeing, whereas mindfulness skills guard against any in clination tow ards negative self judgm ent and the anxiety th a t provokes. In other words, m indfulness skills
balance the critical nature o f self-awareness. However, the critical nature o f self- awareness and self-reflection combined, is beneficial fo r the id e n tific a tio n o f behaviour that is detrim ental to wellbeing.
3.2.2 Understanding Mindfulness
M indfulness is described as an all-encompassing awareness, w hich holds the breath, body, thoughts, o r sounds, in the sp o tlig h t o f focused a tte ntion [G ilpin, 2008, 230}. It is a continual stream o f awareness that encompasses sensate experience and cognitive processes. It is described as 'a flexible state o f
consciousness that encompasses open and receptive attention and awareness o f both one's in n e r state and outside w o rld ' [Schutte and Malouff, 2 0 1 1 ,1 1 1 6 }. This accentuates the intrapersonal and interpersonal aspects of the practice, w h ich is, like all psychospiritual practices u ltim a te ly socially applied. M indfulness is va riou sly interpreted as 'a tte n tio n ' or 'awareness' and as 'bare a tte n tio n ' [Thera, 1962, 9; 1971, 3}. Bare attention refers to the process o f investigating
psychological and physiological states w ith o u t pre-conception o r value
judgm ent, 'it attends to the bare facts o f a perception w ith o u t reacting to them by deed, speech or mental com ment' [Thera, 1994}. 'A tte n tio n and awareness' and 'acceptance', are described as the 'tw o ' essential components o f m indfulness [Bishop, Lau, Shapiro, Carlson, Anderson, Carmody, Segel, Abbey, Speca, Velting, and Devins, 2004, 232}. A tte n tio n and awareness are grouped together, as both are concerned w ith self-regulation and a focus on im m ediate experience, w h ich dem onstrates 'curiosity, openness and acceptance' [ibid.}. Acceptance is n ot a passive state, but an active response, 'a process o f relatin g openly' to all
and openness, traits that are sometimes referred to as 'beginners m in d ’, w h ich are requisite fo r acceptance to occur (see below ].
Elsewhere the term s 'a ttention' and 'awareness' are d iffe re n tia te d from one another, and this is a useful d istinction that helps id e n tify m ore accurately the com plexity of the phenomena that are collectively referred to as mindfulness. Awareness is the 'subjective experience' and perception of the in n e r and o u te r 'field o f events' that arise in consciousness, whereas 'a tte n tio n ' is the focused awareness th a t identifies p a rticu la r events w ith in the general field o f events (B row n and Ryan, 2004, 242-243]. Awareness and atte ntion are acknowledged as the tw o main features o f consciousness d istin ct from cognition, and
m indfulness is described as 'the m onitoring, observing capacity o f
consciousness' (ibid., 242]. M indfulness is a prim ary, 'm etacognitive skill', a 'cognition about one's cognition' that operates s im ila rly to though t and em otion (Bishop et al., 2004, 233]. This vie w is contested though, and m indfulness is described as a q u a lity o f consciousness used to m o n ito r though t and em otion, and as such cannot be reduced to a metacognitive skill equal to th o u g h t and em otion (B row n and Ryan, 2004, 243]. Mindfulness is 'perceptual', and operates 'upon' not 'w ith in ' thought and emotion, and as such it is argued that, 'if
mindfulness involves observing thought, including thoughts about thoughts, it cannot be thought' (ibid., original emphasis]. It is said to be an unbiased state of consciousness and as such it 'transcends' cognition. For the purposes o f this study, awareness is regarded as the general observation o f the 'in n e r and o u ter' field o f events that constitute ones subjective life, whereas 'a tte n tio n ' is a
'concentrated' or 'single-pointed' awareness, focused upon one p a rtic u la r aspect o f that experience.
3.2.3 A Buddhist Perspective
In the Buddhist context the Pah w o rd 's a t i w hich translates as m indfulness, stems from the verb sarati, ‘to rem em ber' and denotes n ot only recollection and m em ory but also present m om ent awareness [Kuan, 2009, 229]. It is
commensurate w ith re fle x iv ity and 'wakefulness' which is characterised by a broad awareness that encompasses all phenomena, an understanding o f them relative to one another and to one's em otional state [ib id .]. M indfulness is the 'awareness' explicated above, and concentration, w hich is often used as a p re lim in a ry practice to mindfulness m editation, is focused 'attention'. The em otions are in h e re n tly connected to both, as they encompass the cognitive and somatic responses one has to the objects of awareness.
Significantly, there is an ethical component to m indfulness practice, w hich stems from its Buddhist foundation in the Pali Canon, one th a t is n ot always made e xplicit w ith in other contexts. It ensures that certain m oral and ethical standards are m aintained in the 'application' o f mindfulness. I t includes the observance of'patience, harmlessness, loving-kindness and sym pathy', in relation to oneself and others [Kuan, 2009, 229]. The p ra c titio n e r becomes conversant w ith th e ir interactions in the w o rld and learns to take personal 're sp o n sib ility' fo r w h a t they contribute to the whole, as such, the social and in d ivid u a l value of the practice is emphasised [ibid.].
Due to the com plexity o f mindfulness it is possible to deconstruct it fu rth e r to increase understanding. Four stages are delineated th a t specify the form and applications o f awareness: [i] 'sim ple awareness'; [ ii] 'p ro te ctive
awareness'; (iii) 'introspective awareness'; and (iv) 'd e liberate ly fo rm in g conceptions' (ibid., 41-56).
(i) Simple awareness
Simple awareness refers to the practice o f consciously m o n ito rin g in n e r sensations and external experiences d urin g m editation and in d a ily life. For example, when breathing in, it is necessary to have conscious awareness o f that experience. The non-evaluative aspect o f m indfulness is in teg ra l to th is conception.
(ii) Protective awareness
Protective awareness relies upon simple awareness. It is self-awareness o f the reaction to external phenomena as they arise. External objects should be encountered w ith o u t attachm ent or aversion, and self-awareness protects against these outcomes. In addition, em otional resilience is developed as a result o f guarding against the mental suffering caused by attachm ent and aversion. This practice also reinforces the developm ent of a non-judgm ental attitude.
(iii) Introspective awareness
Introspective awareness, like protective awareness, reinforces the preceding stage o f mindfulness, it is described as 'a remedial measure' (ibid., 51).
Rather than being a preventive measure it is described as 'an antidote to unwholesome states' th a t are n ot deflected through the preceding functions o f mindfulness practice.
(iv) Deliberately fo rm in g conceptions
The fourth stage, 'de liberate ly form in g conceptions' requires the use o f 'constructive im agination', w hich involves the re-conception o r re -fra m in g o f
experience, through an alternative lens (ibid., 52). In a Buddhist context, the p ra ctitio n e r identifies w ith the strengths o f the Buddha 'as a rem edy against fear', for example (ibid.). To 'de liberate ly form conceptions' is to contem plate specific scenarios th a t are generally considered e ithe r negative or positive. An example of form ing a negative conception is contem plation o f the
impermanence o f the body and one's m o rta lity, p a rtic u la rly the decay o f the body. This is regarded as n u rtu rin g a 'healthy dislike' for the body, and it enables the p ra ctitio n e r to transcend the psychological suffering th a t arises from attachment to the body, which may otherwise be conceived as a perm anent and in h e re n tly existing object or 'self. The Buddhist practice o f loving kindness or metta, is included in this category o f m indfulness, because it requires the deliberate conceptualisation o f all sentient beings as if they were 'one’s own son' (ibid., 55). This practice utilises 'constructive
im agination' in o rd e r to develop compassion fo r all liv in g beings.
From this account o f m indfulness w ith in a Buddhist context, it is evident th a t the practice, which begins w ith a p a rtic u la r form o f self-awareness, is u ltim a te ly a means o f generating altruism .
3.2.4 Applied Mindfulness
F u rther clarification is gained from the field of psychotherapy, w h ich as previously established, form s a bridge between the psychological and the s p iritu a l paradigms. W ith in this context, the interest in the application o f mindfulness is variously 'clinical', 'scientific', 'theoretical' o r 'personal', and it is concerned w ith both p ra c titio n e r and client wellbeing (Germer, 2005, 10). Three components of mindfulness are identified, 'awareness', 'o f present experience',
'w ith acceptance', the com bination o f w hich is requisite fo r an experience o f'fu ll m indfulness' (ibid., 7, 8). Awareness is fundam ental, as explicated above.
Sim ilarly, bringing attention in to the present m om ent is pivotal. It requires single-pointed concentration, w hich is often in itia lly focused upon the physical body, and pa rticu la rly the breath. Acceptance results from a tte ntion
in te n tio n a lly focused on the present and acceptance o f 'w h a t is', w h ich relieves suffering caused by d w elling negatively on the past, present, or future.
Although all three aspects are required fo r fu ll mindfulness, acceptance, w hich is described as 'an extension o f non-judgm ent', is a factor th a t p a rtic u la rly sets m indfulness apart from self-awareness (ibid.}. As adum brated above, acceptance is n ot a passive state. It is a proactive stance th a t demands a concerted e ffo rt to accept the status quo. /Von-acceptance and the desire fo r change is required in order to fuel the m o tiva tio n to engage in the practice o f acceptance. In itially, through self-awareness and self-reflection, behaviour, in clu d in g emotional responses to experience, is id e ntified as p ro blem atic and it is this th a t leads to a desire fo r change. Once engaged, the practice requires the p ra c titio n e r to w o rk consciously and compassionately to reach a m ore
perm anent state of acceptance. Acceptance and behaviour change result from refram ing experience, not by substituting it w ith a 'positive th o u g h t' b u t thro ugh a process of gradual re-perception that leads to im provem ents in em otional states and therefore lived experience. Indeed, acceptance is described as a p recursor to behavioural change (ibid., 7}.
'Levels' o f m indfulness practice are specified, which exist on a
'continuum ', from the 'everyday' or inform al, to sacred types o f fo rm a l seated m editation practice (ibid., 8}. 'Everyday' m indfulness is experienced in d a ily life
and in psychotherapy. It consists o f'm in d fu l m om ents' such as sim ply taking tim e out o f routine to become aware o f a single breath, o r to reflect on em otional responses to m inor life events (ibid.]. A t the other end o f the continuum is a more 'precise and subtle awareness' that results from the sustained, in te n tio n a l, and form al practice o f an experienced p ra c titio n e r (ibid., 9). Both experiences o f m indfulness are sim ultaneously: 'non-conceptual'; 'present-centred'; 'non- ju dgm ental’; 'inte ntiona l'; 'p a rticipant'; 'non-verbal'; 'e xp lo ra to ry'; and 'lib e ra tin g ' [ib id .]. Essentially, m indfulness is an experience in, ra th e r than cognition 0/ experience. Im po rtantly, it is felt. It is a pre-verbal awareness th a t perceives subtle levels of experience, through in tim acy w ith the m ind and body. Everyday m indfulness is the source o f greater self-knowledge and ensures access to a range o f em otion and therefore lived experience. It gives the p ra c titio n e r options. It provides insight into the 'tru e ' o r im perm anent nature of phenomena. It reveals the nature o f suffering and its antidote, w h ich results fro m
understanding that em otional states and external conditions are cyclical and inconsistent.
As discussed below, form al m editation provides an o p p o rtu n ity to cultivate the psychological 'states' indicative of m indfulness practice, w h ich through repetition, alter brain chem istry and become more established personality 'tra its ’.
3.3 'Form al' Mindfulness M editation Practice
C ontrib uting to the understanding o f both the phenom enon and the practice o f mindfulness, a d istinction between the term s 'a tte n tio n ', 'con centra tion' and 'm indfulness' is made (Lazar, 2005]. A tte n tio n is 'focused awareness',
concentration is attention focused on one object, and m indfulness is described as the 'exploration of the distractions to concentration' (ibid., 221, orig in a l
emphasis). From this perspective the practice is investigative and concerned w ith all sensory experience, not a single object o f concentration.
Mindfulness m editation is described as a 'dance between m indfulness and concentration' (Germer, 2005, 18). The practice consists o f tw o d istinct, b u t interrelated m editations 'concentration' and 'aw areness/insight' (B row n and Ryan, 2004, 243). In general, 'concentration m editation' entails the
objectification of interna l or external phenomena, such as the breath, a candle flame, or a mantra. Concentration m editation is often used as a p re lim in a ry practice, w ith in w hat is given the generic label o f'm indfulness m e d ita tio n ' o r 'practice'. In this context it often begins w ith focus on the breath at a single p o in t w ith in the body, such as the abdomen o r the nose. Each tim e the atte n tio n
wanders from the object o f concentration the p ra ctitio n e r p a tie n tly guides it back to the object of concentration. Concentration m editation is an efficacious, independent practice which can result in 'highly positive experiences', fo r example extreme relaxation o r 'tra n q u illity ', as it stills the m ind, by reducing interna l dialogue (ibid., 244). It is the propensity for s tillin g the m ind, w hich makes it an appropriate precursor to the 'aw areness/insight' m editation, w h ich is the 'core' o f m indfulness practice.
'A w areness/insight m editatio n' by contrast, requires consciousness o f the incessant 'flo w ' o f present m om ent experience, which encompasses the breath, physiology, and sensate experiences including sound, cognition and perception (ibid.). It is a 'heightened awareness' o f the continuous flo w o f'(a p )p e rc e p tu a l phenomena' and it is 'active and energy gathering' (ibid.). It is dynamic, a state o f
alertness that is constantly s h iftin g from one object to another, ju s t as they occur in consciousness, in th e ir 'ra w ' state, p rio r to cognising. For example, sounds are all experienced equally as sim ple 'vib ra tio n ', w ith o u t the need to fathom th e ir origins, to label, or judge them. Both the object and the perception o f an object are equally under the scru tin y o f m indful awareness, sim ply because they are products o f consciousness. Both aspects o f w h a t is com m only term ed
'm indfulness m editation' perform significant and distin ct functions. Concentration focuses attention 'in' specific detail and calms the m ind by
b rin g in g attention into the present, and aw areness/insight provides in sigh t in to the constantly shifting nature o f conscious experience.
Each teacher, author, o r tra d itio n has th e ir pa rticu la r pedagogical
idiosyncrasies and practice may vary from session to session to some extent, b u t the m ain tenets of the m editation practice rem ain fa irly consistent. There is an emphasis on the relinquishm ent o f outcomes d u rin g practice, b u t n a tu ra lly there are outcomes to be experienced, and these may include: calmness; increased awareness; patience; increased energy; cla rity o f m ind; openness; and self- confidence (Harvey, 1990, 245}. In addition, mindfulness practice can lead to experiences o f altered states of consciousness, although this is n ot usually a specified purpose of the practice e ithe r (B row n and Ryan, 2004, 244}.
Mindfulness practice is used to increase one's psychosomatic awareness, through the objective observation o f sensory experience. This is achieved by m aintainin g an awareness o f the self, as observer and in relatio n to the observed phenomena. As a p re lim in a ry procedure, the practice requires awareness o f