Ethics has to do with how one treats those individuals with whom one interacts and is involved and how the relationship formed may depart from
some conception of an ideal…at more technical level, inquiry is supposed to
increase knowledge…The inquiry has to be something worth doing (Smith, 1990).
Ethical considerations are integral to studies involving human participants. Prior to data collection, full ethics approval was obtained from the Massey University Human Ethics Committee: Southern B Application – 13/51 (see Appendix A). Mertens (2009) defines research ethics as “an integral part of research planning and implementation process” (p.
83 12). The researcher needs to consider any issues in relation to the research process because they may become a potential ethical problem (Cohen et al., 2013; Seidman, 2006). There were four main ethical considerations discussed in relation to the research: 1) informed and voluntary consent; 2) respect for privacy and confidentiality; 3) avoidance of conflict of interest; and 4) minimising the risk of harm.
3.9.1 Informed and voluntary consent
Informed consent is the bond of trust which is the foundation and the central stone to any research involving human subjects (Mandal & Parija, 2014). Informed consent is intended to protect participants’ well-being throughout research by ensuring that they understand the nature, purpose and risks involved in the research (Mertens, 2009; Silverman, 2009). Therefore, researchers should provide full information, so the potential participants can make an informed decision to participate or not.
In dealing with the informed consent, the researcher provided full information of the research to the participants. In all four phases on this study, the researcher sent the request letter and information sheets to the participants (see Appendix D, Appendix F, and Appendix H). The request letter and information sheets clearly stated that teachers should not feel pressure to participate and could withdraw anytime from the study without any effect of their career. The researcher also provided contact details for the potential participants if they wanted to ask any questions or request more information concerning the research. In the case of the initial and follow-up questionnaires, EFL
teachers’ consent was automatically assumed when they returned the questionnaires.
For the TSG observations and the semi-structured interviews, all participating EFL teachers completed consent forms which they returned to the researcher before the researcher began collecting data.
3.9.2 Respect for privacy and confidentiality
Wiersma and Jurs (2009) define confidentiality as “the researcher not disclosing the identity of the participants or indicating from whom the data were obtained” (p. 438).
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Participants’ confidentiality in this study was ensured by not disclosing their actual
names in the questionnaires and the interviews, or the name of the three districts. The EFL teachers’ identities were only known by the researcher.
All data was coded during the analysis and pseudonyms were used in writing up the final report. Data obtained from the participants were stored securely throughout the research process. The data were kept on the researcher’s computer hard drive, and protected by a password. The consent forms were also stored in a locked filing cabinet separately from the data. As the researcher collected data in Indonesia, the consent forms were stored in the researcher’s private office in Indonesia. Those transcribing audiotapes were required to sign an authority for release of transcripts (see Appendix K). In accordance with MUHEC regulations, all data including questionnaires documents, observational notes, audiotaped data, and interview transcripts will be deleted five years after completion of the doctoral study.
3.9.3 Avoidance of conflict of interest
Thompson (1993) defines a conflict of interest as “a set of conditions in which professional judgment concerning a primary interest tends to be unduly influenced by a
secondary interest” (p.1). In Thompson’s definition, the reference to ‘a set of
conditions’ is important because having a conflict of interest is a subjective situation and does not depend on underlying motives. Lemmens and Singer (1998) state that if someone has a conflict of interest this does not imply a moral condemnation itself. It is
the person’s actions in the context of a particular situation that may be a cause for
concern.
Further, Gall et al. (2005) indicate that researchers’ financial advantages from research they conduct potentially could create a conflict of interest. In the present study, the researcher was not in a position to get any financial advantage. Another aspect that potentially creates a conflict of interest is when research participants have a dependent relationship with the researcher. The researcher was unknown to the participants prior to the study, so had no prior relationship with them.
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3.9.4 Minimising the risk of harm
Participating in any research can cause risks. The risks can be physical and/or psychological (Berg, 2006). Therefore, researchers need to reflect on the risk of harm resulting from their research and identify ways to minimize the risk. In this study, the researcher attempted to identify of any risk or harm that might occur during and after conducting the research, and did actions to minimize it.
Potential psychological risks of harm of participants were identified. First, the EFL teachers were invited to share their perceptions of PD activities they were involved in. This sensitive topic had the potential to cause discomfort to them, particularly when participants were unsatisfied with PD activities. Second, some of the TSG members may have seen the TSG observations evaluating their TSGs. Third, some of the participants may have perceived that their responses in the questionnaires and interviews could be used to make a judgment of their perceptions and practices. For all phases of the study, the participants were sent the information sheets, explaining that the research was not to be judgmental of participants’ perceptions and practices. The information sheets also explained the participants’ right not to participate in the study or the right to refuse to answer any particular question. During the first TSG meetings, the researcher explained to the TSG members the purpose of the observations was not to evaluate their TSG but to find out how they conducted the TSG. The interview processes took time and at a place based on the participants’ convenience. This ensured that they felt comfortable to be interviewed. In addition, the interviewees were offered opportunities to edit the interview transcripts to ensure the content was in accordance with what they meant. Finally, pseudonyms were used throughout the study to protect both districts and participants’ identities.