ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

As far as possible all the ethical concerns relevant to this particular piece of research were taken into consideration. Firstly, the whole research project was approved by the Ethics Committee for Research into Human Subjects (Non-medical) of the University of Witwatersrand (see the ethical clearance certificate, Appendix I).

Secondly, the school principals and the Provincial Department of Education gave permission for the study to be conducted in two schools in Alexandra Township.

Thirdly, since all of the participants were minors, all of the consent forms had to be signed by their guardians/parents. Participants also signed assent forms before participating in the research project. All the usual ethical principles were also adhered to in the study, such as guaranteeing confidentiality (through use of pseudonyms and erasure of identifying information in the report), and obtaining specific permission to tape record all the interviews. The limitations concerning focus groups confidentially were also discussed at the outset of each group interview, although participants were requested to maintain confidentiality as far as possible in this context. The researcher also informed the participants of the right to withdraw

participants were informed that only the researcher and the researcher‘s supervisor would have access to the transcripts and recordings. Overall, the study did not appear to cause any direct psychological distress to the participants but an offer was made to one participant to go for free trauma counseling at the Alexandra Psychology Clinic after his brother‘s sudden death. All the participants reported that they found the interview processes to be useful in helping them to talk about and reflect upon their emerging masculine identities and future goals in life.

Fourthly, there were some ethical issues related to the fact that the participants were given disposable cameras to take pictures of what it meant to be a boy in the new South Africa. Participants were told to keep their cameras safe and were also instructed not to use their cameras during school hours, except during break times or after school hours. Participants were also requested to obtain permission of any individuals prior to photographing them, as well as to avoid taking people‘s faces. Some pictures were blurred in order to maintain the participant‘s anonymity. Many people were, however, excited to be photographed. In fact, some posed and performed while their photos were being taken. Sometimes to capture the natural interaction between people, participants took pictures without permission and then requested permission after the image has been taken. In general, individuals gave permission freely for their photos to be used in the current research project. Some images included underage boys smoking and drinking in the school toilets and taverns in Alex, but there were no restrictions on photos that could be taken, as long people‘s right to privacy was not violated. All of the participants used their disposable cameras responsibly.

Lastly, all the participants signed a consent photo release form giving the researcher permission to use all of the photos produced out of this research project for research purposes (without compromising their confidentiality). The participants were informed that their photos might be published in this final research report and perhaps in other academic arenas (e.g. journals and books). As mentioned earlier, all the participants were given copies of their photos in an album and certificates of participation in the Young Masculinities Research Project. The certification ceremony was held at one of the high schools as a token of appreciation for their hard work, dedication and commitment in participating in the study.

Some of the other complex ethical issues, such as the inadvertent development of attachments between some of the participants and the researcher, have already been discussed. The researcher made every effort to adhere to sound research ethics protocols in executing the study. It appeared that in the main there were benefits to both the researcher and the participants in undertaking the study.

Findings and discussion Introduction

Based on the data analysis, it was decided to discuss the central findings under the following five key sets of themes, in which each is presented in a separate chapter. Within these broad themes or subject topics various sub-themes are also elaborated. The core themes and a brief summary of key findings covered in each of the findings chapter is briefly outlined in advance of the more extended discussion. Chapter 9, which is the first findings chapter, discusses two different ‗types‘ of boys, namely, tsotsi and academic boys and how these boys compete with one another for dominance in the school context. Tsotsi boys were evidently more popular than academic boys. Academic boys interviewed in the study described some of the contradictions of living out their masculinity in competing contexts and with a range of objectives in mind. They had to draw on competing discourses and careful management and enactments of identity to negotiate conflicting meanings concerning what constituted being a ‗real boy‘. In conclusion, the chapter reveals that being a conflicted male subject should not necessarily be seen as problematic. It can, in fact, be an emotional resource in providing some insight into how to be reflective about a masculine self.

Chapter 10 covers adolescent boys‘ talk about girls and sex. Many of the participants said that boys expect to have sex with multiple girlfriends as sexual relations are seen as a key marker of successful young masculinity. This view of sex as a priority in relationships with multiple girlfriends was, however, rejected by other participants, some of whom classified themselves as Christian. These participants employed various coping strategies to resist and reject peer pressure, including the use of religious convictions to say ‗no‘ to sex before marriage. One of the conclusions in this chapter is that the adolescent boys‘ voices reflect conflict and contradiction in their construction of masculinity with regard to sexual identity and heterosexual engagement.

Chapter 11 covers the discussion on the role that ‗class‘ and material status plays on how the boys negotiate masculinity. The participants mentioned that ‗class‘ plays an important role in

making certain boys more popular than others. Class in this study relates to what boys wear, the school they go to (private or public) and the music they listen to. ‗Class‘ also seemed to be an important factor in determining who has access to girls as sexual partners.

Chapter 12 deals with the participants‘ views on gay masculinity. The study findings reveal the participants‘ homophobic attitudes towards gay boys and that boys police each other in this regard. ‗Homosexuality‘ is regarded as ‗other‘, ‗deviant‘, ‗abnormal‘ and ‗un-African‘. In order to maintain their ‗straight‘ masculinity, the participants reported isolating themselves from gay boys and avoiding practices that might be associated with ‗homosexuality‘. The conclusion in the chapter is that many boys appear to be internally threatened and conflicted by the unmanliness associated with gay masculinity.

The last findings and discussion chapter, chapter 13, deals with boys‘ relationships with caregivers. All the participants in the study said that they had good relationships with their mothers and other female figures in their lives. In talking about their mothers, the participants said that they could more freely and openly talk to their mothers than their fathers about their girlfriends, sex, substance abuse and HIV/AIDS. The chapter reveals that many of the boys in the study had limited access to adult male role models. Many of the boys talked about their wish to become different fathers to their own biological fathers. A sub-section of the chapter also discusses the experience of three adolescent boys as teenage fathers.

Chapter 9: Types of adolescent masculinity in Alexandra Township and associated