Ethnographic Techniques

‘Ethnographic techniques’ is not a generic term. Hammersley (1990, cited by Francis Chizororo, 2008:115) is of the view that it is not that clear now, as to what constitute ethnographic techniques given the diverse ways ethnographic research is being undertaken. Under this study ethnographic techniques are taken to be the various research methods ingrained in ethnographic research.This is taken from the understanding that ethnographic techniques have developed from reliance on participant observation over long period of time (James, 2001:247) to a mixture of techniques used in qualitative research as well as research with children

(Lee,2001:49). In this study, ‘ethnographic techniques’ include participant observation, semi-structured interviews, photographing, drawing, diary making, composing songs and poems undertaken for a period of time with the participants in their environment (Lee, 2001:48).

32 _{The term means ‘writing about people’ and doing ethnography entails commitment to interpretative} approach encompassing a range of different qualitative research techniques. ‘The interpretative understanding develops slowly: through immersion in the lives of those we seek to understand, over a

Children are central to this study which distinguishes the theoretical methodology as well as ethical concerns from research designed for adults. Hinton (2008: 291) argues that children and childhood have not been included in mainstream theories due to the centrality of adult- centred models. While the traditional theorisations of childhood have conceptualised children as passive individuals, in this research they are understood as objects existing independently of the researcher. Ethnography, together with the initiatives for providing children with the right to self expression is currently becoming an accepted stance in children’s studies (James, 2001:246) as its methods and techniques provide a chance to treat children as individuals worth of study and the researcher get time to be near the children in a subjective manner. The child is central and the child’s social relationship and culture are acknowledged as deserving of study in their own right (James and Prout, 1997:4). Lee (2001:49) summarises ethnography with children as:

A strategy for doing research with children, which allow[s] for different understandings of the experience of childhood, child- adult relationships and of children’s position in society to emerge. It provides opportunities for children’s muted voices to be heard and for children as individual social agents to shine...

Six months field study was spent with the OCHH and the other participants in the two districts of the study interacting in their daily lives as a means of gaining insight into their social lives. This is in line with the interpretative perspective which is committed to long time, hours, days, weeks (Tamanaha, 1997), in this case months, of living among the OCHH while seeking to address the in-depth perspectives of

their environment and to discover how they view themselves and others (Lee, 2001: 48).

Ethnographic methods(such as participant observation combined with semi or unstructured interviews,conversation) however, have been criticised as ‘idle past time, a case of fiddling while world burns’ (see Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983: 20).This is the case due to the time used by these ethnographic methods. In relation to researching with children the method has been questioned as to its limitations related to ethics (Francis -Chizororo, 2008: 116). The former criticism has not appreciated the data and the knowledge which the methods produce specifically when researching with children. The time spent in the field helps to harness

relationship with informants when participating in activities such as funerals, church services, development work, school visits as well as in much of what is happening daily. It is then possible to gain the ‘emic perspective33’ as well as---deepening our understanding of ‘otherness:

moving beyond the cover stories, idealised self-representations well rehearsed verbal modes of public image and strategic manipulation of those whose lives we seek to understand (Jessor, Colby and Shweder, 1996: 18).

The “otherness” here describes the children, and relationships and understanding built through ethnographic techniques which enable the researcher to appreciate the capacity of children to express what is happening in their lives, which eventually

33 _{‘Emic perspective is said to be the point of view of the local people without the researcher imposing} their own conceptual frameworks as differentiated from ‘etic’ which is an outsider’s perspective (Tamanaha, (1997) Realist Socio-Legal Theory Pragmatism and a Social Theory of Law, Oxford:

leads to treating children as “human beings” in their own right. This is based on the most significant characteristic of ethnography; to recognise children, as what they say or do in the course of the research can influence the researcher’s agenda (Lee, 2001: 48).

On issues related to the ethics it is true that the time and different methods used in ethnography are prone to cause not only disturbance but also stress on part of the children. However, Robson (2001), in her study with young carers of the South proposes the need to justify any discomfort caused in the process of research in order to enable the children (OCHH) to exercise their right to self-expression. The voices of children can be heard only as a benefit to them and other marginalised children in future and to further challenge the notion that OCHH are just susceptible victims of their circumstances with no ingenuity on their part.

The ethnographic approaches therefore help to take an account of the realities of the legal and other plural settings and the constantly developing meaning by way of cultural frames and people’s (in this case OCHH) daily lives practices. There are however some challenges when the researcher is an adult researching with children which entails considering positioning of self as a researcher.

4.2.3.1. Positioning Self

As an adult researcher I entered the field aware that the children might accept to participate so as to please me or they might feel they are obliged to do so. I explained to the children the objectives of my study and my position as a researcher. The children associated with me as a grand mother (bibi) which made it easy for them to be free and for me to be able to associate easily with them. This situation reduced the

power tensions which might have arisen if they had looked at me as a stranger coming from town. Visiting the OCHH in their homes and working with them also positioned me as one of them. I remember Kevona and her young brother commenting on the long time I spent with them in their small garden.They could not imagine I could work for so long like a person from the village. Kedi was also very happy when I went with her to collect firewood and that I could carry the bundle like she did.The fact that I told the OCHH I was a student and I wanted to learn from them helped to reduce the idea that I was a person who had more power over them as most of them laughed at the idea that I could be a student at my age. They were surprised when I asked them to decide when we could meet and that it depended on their time and not mine. There was however an instance when one of the OCHH provided information which meant to impress on me that she was in difficulties, hoping to obtain assistance from me. This happened with one OCHH and it was easy to detect due to the long encounter I had with the children and the different techniques I used in the study, which was an advantage. I also was aware that it could affect the children if I became attached to them too much. I avoided staying in their homes although I visited them several times which did not raise their expectation of having an adult in their homes. This notwithstanding they remain attached to me, some of them continued to send telephone messages even after I had left.

The following section connects the theoretical framework to the research design to further clarify how the study was conceived and planned.