Evolution of ICT supported Learning and Teaching of mathematics

Many studies have been carried out, reviewing the evolution of ICT as well as the effect that it has had on teaching and learning, in order to identify the influence that the current development stage of ICT has on the learning of mathematics, whilst taking into account the students ICT skills and their current learning needs (White, 2011; Akbiyik, 2011). Posse (2012) discussed the evolution of the use of ICT in education. He identified five major periods for the use of computers in the education system, which are summarized in Figure 3 below.

The phases were:

(1) Late 1970’s through to the early 1980’s – was the programming, drill and practice phase;

(2) Late 1980’s through to the early 1990’s – was the computer based training (CBT) with multimedia phase;

(3) Early 1990’s – was the Internet-based training phase;

(4) Late 1990’s through to the early 2000’s – was the e-Learning phase; and (5) Late 2000’s – is the social software, Web 2.0 and free and open content phase.

E-Learning E- Le ar ni ng Internet-Based Training E- Learning Social Software + Free and Open Source LMS BLENDED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Computer Based Training with Multimedia Programming/ drill and practise 1975 1980 1985 1990 2000 2010 2014

Figure 3 Evolution of ICT. Adapted from Posse (2012).

It is worth noting, that an old stage overlaps with its successor. The older stages don’t disappear completely - instead they are present in the formation of new paradigms (Posse, 2012).

Initially computers were used to teach computer programming, but the development of the microprocessor in the early 1970’s, saw the introduction of affordable microcomputers into schools at a rapid rate (Newhouse, 2002a). During the early days of the use of ICT in the school classroom, traditional computer assisted instruction which was based on rigid drill and practice, was the main method of utilizing ICT. With the efficiency of the drill and practice software being questioned, more flexible and open learning programs were developed (Katz, 2002 cited in Akbiyik, 2011).

During the period of the late 1970’s through to the early 1980s, computers had become more affordable to schools. Whilst tutorial software continued to be developed (Chambers & Sprecher, 1984), a range of other educational software was developed that was not based on the premise of teacher replacement – such as simulation and modelling software. However, the major driving force supporting the need for the introduction of greater amounts of computer hardware into schools concerned the perceived need to increase the level of computer literacy among students (Carleer, 1984; Downes, Perry, & Sherwood, 1995 cited in Newhouse, 2002a).

The period of the 1990’s was the decade of computer communications and information access, in particular the popularity and accessibility of internet-based services, such as the e- mail and the World Wide Web. Concurrently, the CD-ROM was replacing the floppy disk as the standard medium for the distribution of packaged software. This replacement, allowed large information-based software packages such as encyclopaedias to be distributed in a cheap and easy manner. As a result of this, educators became more focused on the use of the technology to improve the student learning as the rationale for the investment (Newhouse, 2002b).

In the present day, computers in schools are now not only the focus of study (technology education) but are also a support for learning and teaching (educational technology).

The impact of ICT within the educational industry has been assessed in all of the five phases with mixed results. Improved attitudes towards use of technology for learning and development of a teacher’s technological skills, has been recognized as an important factor in the use of ICT. Literature from the past 20 years also affirms that the affective factors and beliefs impact on the student learning. Ruffell, Mason and Allen (1998) have noted, that attitudes may not be defined conceptually in order to be reliable, but instead they may be “influenced by social and emotional context and the personal construction of these” (p.15).

Attitudes are commonly distinguished from beliefs in that they are moderate in duration, intensity and stability and have an emotional content, while beliefs become stable and are not easily changed (McLeod, 1992; Mayes, 1998; Pajares, 1992 cited in Akbiyik, 2011). Akbiyik

(2011) found that positive attitudes and beliefs generally have a positive impact on the students learning. Ruffell et al. (1998) indicated that attitudes can rapidly change from a negative one to a positive one and in particular that ‘good teaching’ can have a similar effect.

Research has shown the effectiveness of using representational technologies in mathematics, to support student learning (Mayer, 2005). However, multiple obstacles have delayed the rollout of these technologies to the broader society – such as the perception that technology is too difficult to implement in diverse classrooms (Becker, 2001), and the inconsistent findings on the actual benefits of using educational technology in mathematics (Dynarski et al., 2007). The fifth phase is the era of social software and free and open content. Throughout the last decade, ICT have been dynamically introduced into society. At this stage, formal education (i.e. primary, secondary and higher education) as well as all the various modes of informal education (i.e. professional training etc.) have been affected by ICT. All the contemporary digital tools, such as computers and the internet, smart phones and tablets have become widely used within the educational profession. An analysis of various “net generation” related literature reveals three prominent types of claims about:

(1) the widespread use of ICT;

(2) the impact that digital immersion has on learning; and

(3) the distinctive personal and behavioural characteristics of this generation.

The popular “net generation” discourse suggests that this generation, born roughly between 1982 and 2000, has been profoundly influenced by the advent of digital technologies as well as their immersion in a digital and networked world. There is little doubt that the younger people have a tendency to use digital technologies much more than their older counterparts, although digital technology use by older people is growing (Jones and Fox, 2009).

Many studies have found that the use of some particular ICTs (i.e. mobile phones, email and instant messaging) is ubiquitous, but there is no evidence to support claims that digital literacy, connectedness, a need for immediacy and a preference for experiential learning were the characteristics of any particular generation of learners (Bennett et al., 2008; Guo et al., 2008; Jones & Cross, 2009; Kennedy et al., 2007, 2009; Kvavik, 2005; Margaryan & Littlejohn, 2008; Pedró, 2009; Reeves & Oh, 2007; Selwyn, 2009).

Throughout the fifth phase, there have been many different uses and applications of ICT made available to the general public – such as open source software. These applications range from using ICT as a free tool to support the traditional teaching methods, to courses which have had ICT fully integrated into their curriculum, which entails a completely different approach to teaching. This raises the question of whether ICT should only be a supplementary tool or if it should be an enabler of innovation (Nehouse, 2002).

There is a plethora of different technologies, which are currently being used in mathematics classrooms, with varying degrees of success. Technologies such as graphing and CAS calculators allow students to explore much more difficult problems, than educators would have dared to assign years ago. Such calculators allow the investigation of functions through the use of tables, graphs and equations in ways that were not possible prior to their proliferation. Those calculators allow the students to focus on the setting up and the interpretation of results (Dick, 1992; Hopkins, 1992).

Studies focusing on the introduction of ICT into the mathematics curriculum generally can be divided in three main viewpoints:

(1) some are of the view that ICT is a basis for a revolutionary reform in this field or that it is a panacea;

(2) others consider that ICT in education is a very useful tool, yet it will not dramatically affect or reform this field; and

(3) others are of the belief that ICT will help solve the “Mathematics Problem”, but to do so there must be a considerable investment into ICT, which will take time, resources and pedagogical change and will have no immediate return on this investment.

The current stage of ICT supported mathematics education can be characterised as a new way of learning mathematics. Numerous open source and free mathematical software packages such as Sage, GeoGebra and Maxima are available to both the teachers and the students.

These packages also offer free educational resources for teachers and also more ways for students to learn mathematics, by providing free and customizable digital content.

Mathematics and technology instruction, such as computer-mediated learning, are becoming more prevalent within the mathematics classroom and their positive affect, on student learning is becoming evident. Replacing the “drill and kill” worksheets, with software which is one-on-one, self-paced by the student and provides immediate feedback can help remediate and enhance student understanding. Despite this, some studies have reported that “no measurable differences in the learning outcomes for students, who used various kinds of technology in their classrooms” (Gouvêa, 2007, p. 11). One particular study examined the use of various technological products, such as graphing calculators, computer algebra systems and dynamic geometry software indicated that all these tools have had positive effects on student outcomes (Almeqdadi, 2000; Funkhouser, 2002; Harskamp, Suhre and Van Streun, 2000).