Chapter 4 : Physical Chemical Analysis of Composition Label
4.3.4 Examining ionic and metal composition of bottled drinking water samples
The following table 4.5 shows the values of other elements, including cations and metals, obtained from each water bottle label. ICP-OES was used to evaluate the concentrations of the aforementioned analytes as well as the presence of certain metals, including aluminum, copper, nickel, lead, and zinc.
Table 4.5: Label and experimental values of ions and metals present in bottled water samples, and the percent difference between the two.
Concentrations in mg/L (ppm)
Brand name Ca Na Mg K Fe Al Cu Ni Pb Zn
WHO guideline
limits * * * * * 0.9 2 0.07 0.01 *
Tamimi markets
AlQasim 21 <5 9 8 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 18.92 3.11 8.63 7.12 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference -10% 0% -4% -11% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Tamimi markets
AlKharj 10 10 10 <1 <0.1 * * * * *
Experimental
Value 11.75 9.08 12.98 0.17 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.01 u
Concentrations in mg/L (ppm)
Brand name Ca Na Mg K Fe Al Cu Ni Pb Zn
% Difference 18% -9% 30% 0% 0% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Nestle pure life
Dammam 27 9.5 2.3 0.2 <0.02 * * * * *
Experimental
Value 30 8.4 3.29 0.07 0.00 u 0.00 u 0 0.00 u 0.01 u 0.00 u
% Difference 11% -12% 43% -65% 0% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Nestle pure life
Madinah 27 9.5 2.3 0.2 <0.02 * * * * *
Experimental
Value 29.18 8.17 1.86 0.08 0.00 u 0.01 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference 8% -14% -19% -60% 0% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Berain plastic 22 17 3 5 0.01 * * * * *
Experimental
Value 22.61 14.19 3.28 6.25 0.00 u 0.00 u 0 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.01
% Difference 3% -17% 9% 25% -100% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Berain glass 22 17 3 5 0.01 * * * * *
Experimental
Value 20.28 20.06 2.55 4.23 0.00 u 0.09 0 0.00 u 0.01 0.00 u
% Difference -8% 18% -15% -15% -100% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Berain sparkling 20 18 2.3 0.9 0.01 * * * * *
Experimental
Value 20.46 14.5 2.12 3.53 0.00 u 0 0 0.00 u 0.01 0.00 u
% Difference 2% -19% -8% 292% -100% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Hana water 21 <5 9 8 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 18.66 2.81 8.1 7.19 0.00 u 0.00 u 0 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u
Concentrations in mg/L (ppm)
Brand name Ca Na Mg K Fe Al Cu Ni Pb Zn
% Difference -11% 0% -10% -10% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Arwa <1 3 21.1 <1 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 0.03 1.53 20.38 4.65 0 0.00 u 0 0 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference 0% -49% -3% 365% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Aquafina <1.0 4 20 <1.0 0.02 * * * * *
Experimental
Value 0 1.25 24.06 1.16 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference 0% -69% 20% 16% 100% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Nova 11 17 3.4 1.2 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 17.23 17.71 5.82 1.91 0.00 u 0.01 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference 57% 4% 71% 59% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Evian plastic 80 6.5 26 1 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 77.88 7.23 28.45 1.56 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference -3% 11% 9% 56% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Evian glass 80 6.5 26 1 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 88 7.67 28.09 1.59 0.00 u 0.01 0.00 u 0.00 u 0 0
% Difference 10% 18% 8% 59% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Volvic 12 12 8 6 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 13.33 12.22 9.24 7.1 0.00 u 0.00 u 0 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference 11% 2% 16% 18% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Concentrations in mg/L (ppm)
Brand name Ca Na Mg K Fe Al Cu Ni Pb Zn
Highland
Springs 40.5 5.6 10.1 0.7 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 38.54 7.87 21.58 1.34 0.00 u 0.00 u 0 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.01
% Difference -5% 41% 114% 91% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Wildalp 45 2 13 1 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 39.78 1.83 14.79 0.33 0.00 u -0.01 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.01
% Difference -12% -9% 14% -67% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Acqua Panna 32.2 6.5 6.6 0.8 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 33.79 6.56 7.22 1.23 0.00 u 0.01 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.01 0.01 u
% Difference 5% 1% 9% 54% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Tannourine 50 4 13 1 <0.1 * * * * *
Experimental
Value 57.88 4.18 17.13 0.91 0.00 u 0.00 u 0 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference 16% 4% 32% -9% 0% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Still scottish mountain water by Sainsbury's
<55 <15 <16 <2 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 28.9 10.14 10.28 1.34 0.00 u -0.01 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.01
% Difference 0% 0% 0% 0% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Fiji 18 18 15 5 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 19.44 18.31 15.29 6.25 0.00 u 0.00 u 0 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference 8% 2% 2% 25% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Concentrations in mg/L (ppm)
Brand name Ca Na Mg K Fe Al Cu Ni Pb Zn
Voss plastic 3.7 3.8 0.9 * * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 2.73 2.07 0.6 0.47 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference -26% -46% -33% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Voss glass 3.7 3.8 0.9 * * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 3.24 3.79 0.69 0.52 0.00 u 0.01 0 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference -12% 0% -23% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Voss sparkling 3.7 122 0.9 * * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 3.11 119.61 0.65 0.96 0.00 u 0.01 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference -16% -2% -28% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Perrier 150 9.6 3.9 <1 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 170.71 11.39 4.01 0.67 0.00 u 0 0 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.00 u
% Difference 14% 19% 3% 0% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
S.pellegrino 166 30 49.5 2.1 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 176.33 36.45 53.41 3.89 0.00 u 0.01 0 0.00 u 0.00 u 0.01
% Difference 6% 22% 8% 85% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Badoit 153 180 80 11 * * * * * *
Experimental
Value 108.68 186.19 91.36 16 0.00 u 0.01 0.00 u 0.00 u -0.01 u 0.00 u
% Difference -29% 3% 14% 45% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
The “*” symbol in the table refers to values that were not provided by the WHO or not indicated on the water bottle labels. “u” next to experimental values refers to values undetected by ICP-OES or under the detection limit.
Through observing the percent differences, there are great variations in most cases between the stated concentrations on the labels and the experimental values. Most samples comply with health regulations set by the WHO, and harmful trace elements are measured at levels far below the guideline limits 63. Comparing experimental results between bottled water samples, it is shown that Badoit, a natural sparkling mineral water sample, had the highest concentrations of potassium, magnesium, and sodium at 16 ppm, 91.36 ppm, and 186.19-198.96 ppm, respectively. However, S. Pellegrino, another natural sparkling water sample, had the highest calcium concentration at 176.33-178.81 ppm, followed by Perrier and Badoit. S. Pellegrino also had the second highest
magnesium and the third highest sodium concentrations. Several sparkling water samples were found to have the highest overall concentrations of analytes, but besides that, there was no clear trend between the concentrations of ions and the type of water. For instance, Aquafina and Arwa contained the lowest concentrations of calcium and sodium, but had higher concentrations of potassium and magnesium. Nestle Pure Life on the other hand had higher concentrations of calcium and sodium, but had the lowest potassium
concentration. All three water samples are of purified drinking water type. Volvic and Evian, both natural mineral waters from France, had opposing concentrations with all ions analyzed. Voss, an artesian water sample, had concentrations on the lower end of the spectrum, with the lowest magnesium concentration among all samples, while Fiji, had concentrations closer to the higher end.
In terms of trace elements present in bottled drinking water, including iron, aluminum, nickel, lead, and zinc, there was virtually no amounts detected, with zero ppm indicating the concentrations are either below the limit of detection or not present. These elements may be harmful to human health in high amounts, so its absence in all tested drinking water samples is ideal. Zinc commonly present at low levels in drinking water is not of health concern, however levels higher than 3-5 mg/L may affect the drinkability and taste of water 63. Nickel present in pipes, distribution systems, underground, or by means of heavy pollution, may leach into the water. Although inhaling nickel is carcinogenic, oral intake may not be a severe threat at very low levels, and the most common side effect is contact dermatitis 63. With copper, there are risks of gastrointestinal issues associated; its presence indicates interior copper plumbing corrosion in pipes. However there are no underlying risks with the samples examined which contain very low to non-existent concentrations 63. Although ingesting trace amounts of aluminum have not been proven to be toxic, there have been studies suggesting that aluminum is potentially neurotoxic and can lead to Alzheimer’s disease 63, 101. Levels present in drinking water samples however are far below the health suggested limit. Lead is a harmful heavy metal
contaminant that can lead to many adverse health effects, including neurodevelopmental disorders, mortality, hypertension, and fertility issues 63. Its presence in water indicates lead leaching into the water from corrosion in pipes or connections containing lead 63. Although most samples comply with WHO guidelines, Berain, Nestle Pure Life from Dammam, and Acqua Panna had concentrations measured at the limit of 0.01 mg/L, however, this result may be due to measurement closeness to the limit of detection.
The other elements present in water, including iron, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, constitute essential minerals required for daily health, though the amounts needed in daily diets vary. There are no health concerns based on guidelines set by the WHO since their concentrations in drinking water are not worrying, but higher levels of these elements may affect the taste or acceptability of water 63. Iron, for example, is an essential mineral with daily intake requirements between 10-50 mg per day, depending on the individual. An iron concentration of 2 mg/L would represent 10% of the maximum intake requirement, but higher concentrations would affect the taste and acceptability of drinking water 63. Sodium levels above 200 mg/L may also lead to an unacceptable taste
63. Sodium was found to be higher in sparkling water due to possible compositions of sodium bicarbonate or sodium chloride; Badoit has a high concentration of sodium as well as bicarbonate. The recommended daily intake of potassium is over 3000 mg/L, and the amount present in water is much lower, so it does not add any health benefit 63. However, potassium present from treatment with potassium chloride may lead to adverse consequences in diseased individuals at high risk 63. In the case of calcium, a nutrient important for bone health, concentrations varied among the different water samples. In the US, calcium typically ranged from 1 to 145 mg/liter in purified water supplies, and it ranged from 7 to 140 mg/L in several European countries 102. The top ten measured calcium concentrations were found in sparkling and mineral water samples and ranged from 32 to 178 mg/L. Dietary recommendations for calcium intake is about 1000 mg for adults per day 103. Assuming an adult drinking an average of 2 liters of water a day, and based of the values of the drinking water samples with the highest concentrations, they would contribute from 64 mg/day to a maximum of 356 mg/day of calcium. However,
only 40% of calcium is absorbed 102. Thus, although drinking water may provide
nutritional benefit, the amount of calcium contributed to daily intake is too small to make a difference and would not contribute to calcium deficiency. The effects of deficiency of calcium and magnesium are not well established in healthy individuals, and drinking water does not supplement dietary needs enough for it to be of significance 102. Minerals in bottled water are healthy overall; however, mineral water is not necessarily healthier than other types of water. With a balanced diet, there is no need to obtain extra minerals from water. Mineral water may be beneficial in locations with populations at risk of low nutrition, but these are the same communities that do not have access to or cannot afford these types of mineral waters 104. Natural waters with increased concentrations of
minerals do not necessarily provide a health benefit over other types of water, nor is it of better quality. There are also other factors to consider when looking at the quality of water, such as the microbiological composition and stability. In the upcoming chapters, the microbial content of all samples will be investigated and compared.
4.3.5 Distribution of bottled drinking water types based on mineral compositions