Example from Asia and developing countries

Although greenways and ecological networks are not found in Asia to the same magnitude as in the USA and Europe, there are signs of acceptance and dissemination of the two concepts, as outlined below.

A case study of urban ecological networks in Tehran’s metropolitan area

The Tehran case study is an assessment of how to apply landscape ecology principles to the planning of an ecological network for the city. The study is focused on the metropolitan area where urbanization has developed to the stage of becoming an alarming threat to the natural environment (Aminzadeh & Khansefid, 2010). This is a common phenomenon in the developing world.

As in the developed, in the developing world the aim of these networks is harmony between natural and physical systems in the city. The Tehran study started with identification of the existing natural and built features of the city to see what kind of intervention would best interweave these elements to increase ecological interactions.

Options considered were an open space network, a park system, and green networks. A hydrological network was also believed to have powerful potential for the main corridor of the city, and this was assessed for significance as part of the method along with roads, which also have potential as green corridors.

This stage of the assessment was simply performed by overlaying three maps of aspects which are considered essential as part of a network. First is the map of farm land, open spaces and green spaces, both natural and man-made. Second is the hydrological map, and the final map is the road networks. Overlaying these maps produced a map of existing ecological patches and corridors in the Tehran matrix, comprising natural and built elements (Figure 2.15).

Figure 2.15. Ecological structure of Tehran (bottom) accommodating three important considerations: green areas (top left), hydrology (top middle) and road networks (top

right) (Source: Aminzadeh & Khansefid (2010).

The final map of ecological structure is used to see how connections between existing spaces through existing water and road corridors could be made possible. This analysis is performed by considering the potential and restrictions for each element along with improvement suggestions in order to realize a viable urban green space network system for the city.

Singapore parks connector network

Singapore forms a good example on how a country with limited land area has managed to give priority to the provision of parks, open spaces and nature areas under the challenge of constricted land use and competition for economic development. The

The fact most green spaces in the country are artificial relates to the history of the land use shift experienced by the country. Massive development projects took place between 1960 and 1990 to deal with severe problems such as population growth, housing shortages and inadequate infrastructure. The growth of hard structures and construction led to extreme land clearance of natural areas such as forests, ridges, swamps, and the damming and canalization of natural rivers (Briffett, Sodhi, Yuen, & Kong, 2004). This unfortunately led to extinction of many taxa of butterflies, fish, birds and mammals (Brook, Sodhi, & Ng, 2003). In order to compensate for this ‘loss’ other forms of nature were constructed to fulfill the needs of the people, but without being able to return the lost biodiversity. This is one cause of the green spaces in the city being mainly for amenity value such as specially designed parks, road sides and median vegetation, open spaces with particular functions, and creepers over walls and pedestrian bridges (Briffett et al., 2004).

The greenway concept was adapted to link parks as linear corridors, and termed ‘park connectors’. The Park Connector Network (PCN) is “an island-wide network of linear open space that links up major parks and nature sites in Singapore, bringing people closer to these places and that enhances recreational opportunities for all” (National Parks Board, 2008). The inclusion of parks and water bodies through the green and blue plans was designed as a long term project, which despite the start made to implement the connector network, will take about 30 years to complete (Sodhi, Briffett, Kong, &

Yuen, 1999; Tan, 2006). Among the targets is to obtain 360 km of greenways and to achieve 0.8 hectares of parkland per 1000 residents (Tan, 2006).

In accordance with the National Parks Board of Singapore definition when the entire network has been completed two main objectives will be achieved from both human and biodiversity perspectives. People will be able to access parks, forming more cost-effective recreational opportunities. At the same time, biodiversity will be enhanced as a result of connectivity between refuge sites through nature corridors within the highly urbanized environment (Tan, 2006).

Figure 2.16. Park connector network, Singapore- a concept plan

(Source: Tan (2006))

Similar to other ecological project plans, collaboration between multi interests is important to gain support as well as to overcome criticism and problems. In order to deal with demanding pressures for direct economic gain from every inch of land, through a series of pilot projects the planners have made a coalition with key land-use agencies and local government leaders (Tan, 2006).

Figure 2.17. Example of a park connector within a highly urbanized environment (left) and a more natural backdrop (right) (Source: Tan (2006))

Apart from connection via corridors of trails and water systems, a proposal has also been made to utilize the railway as a green corridor throughout the country (Peng et al., 2010).

The Indonesian context

The two previous examples in Asia represent conditions not very like those of Indonesia. Additionally, there are applications of the network concept in other Asian countries but, like Singapore, they are more representative of the developed nation context, such as China and Japan (as in Yu, Li, & Li (2006); L. Zhang & Wang (2006) and Yokohari, Amemiya, & Amati (2006)). Otherwise examples from the developing world such as Iran (Aminzadeh & Khansefid, 2010) and Vietnam (Uy & Nakagoshi, 2007) are at the study and planning stage, and hence are more theoretical than practical.

Therefore, to adapt the idea of inserting a greenway or ecological network into an Indonesian city, it is not sufficient simply to replicate implementation in other Asian cities. More studies are necessary to assess the applicability of these two ideas in Indonesian cities in order to comply with local conditions and requirements.

However, it is important to remember that Indonesia is a former Dutch colonized nation.

As seen in many Indonesian cities, the Dutch heritage of providing green urban areas suggests that the ecological network concept could be implemented without starting it from scratch. An example is shown in the initiative for the conservation of a long area of mangroves in the city of Surabaya (ITS, 2010). The preservation of mangroves will create green coastal corridors which could be the target for connection with other forms of green areas in the centre of the city. Figure 2.18 shows the mangrove conservation project in Surabaya. As a first stage, this project started in the eastern coastal area of the city, being part of its open space system and the key to the formation of integrated parks, ponds and forest. Apart from nature preservation purposes, the area could also become an attractive recreational spot, which will give economic benefits to the local community.

Overall, there is a need to study Indonesian cities in both a deeper and specific way. As in other cities, this could be started by focusing on identifying existing potential as well as possible limitations and challenges.

Figure 2.18. Mangroves in Surabaya coastal area are to be preserved along the coastline to form a long, wide green patch. (Source: Housing and Human Settlements, ITS (2010)

2.8. Summary

This chapter described the problems of increased urbanization and the effect this has on urban green spaces. Often leaving them disconnected and of poor ecological quality. It continued by looking at examples of urban development in the developed world which have tried to ameliorate this problem but comprehensive planning of urban green spaces to link them in some form. Two clear ideas emerge. The first is the urban greenway, which originated in the USA, as a way of linking people to the more rural outskirts of the city through a series of connected parks and urban green spaces. The second originated in the Netherlands and has since been expanded to cross European boundaries. This is the ecological network which connects green spaces in the city such that they retain not just amenity value for human beings but also ecological value for other non-human species. These ecological networks, like greenways, connect urban areas with more natural and ecologically rich areas outside the urban development.

Some examples of linked urban green spaces from Asia and developing countries were also considered. This review leads on to the research questions set out in the next chapter.

Chapter 3

Research Method, Plan and Stages

Chapter 2 discussed urban areas and their development, describing theoretical attributes, their positive and negative effects towards human beings and the environment, as well as efforts to tackle problems of urban development from the perspective and for the sake of people, nature, and the environment. From the discussion emerged the relationship between greenways and ecological networks as ways to create a better urban environment, as well as important aspects to consider prior to the implementation of such concepts. This requires understanding the condition of the urban area in question regarding potential and challenges, the process and its stages, and the supporting resources and information needed.

However, as mentioned before greenways and ecological networks were originally products of developed countries, and both approaches have many observable precedents in the developed world. Therefore, to understand whether implementation in a developing context might require a different approach, it is important to conduct more specific studies. Additionally, despite the presence of theoretical studies in Asia and the developing world, the differences between developing countries justify the need for specific local studies. Among the influential factors are culture and geographic conditions. Taking Singapore as an example, the city has limited functional options for green areas other than for human benefit and amenity value, due to the limited availability of space and resources. Applying all that has been implemented in this city would not be appropriate for Indonesian cities, which have much more land area available, and hence more options.

This research investigation is based in Makassar, a fast growing Indonesian city (see chapter 4). Because of its Dutch heritage there are some green areas in the city that were created by the Dutch (Chapter 4). However, like many other developing cities, these spaces are under pressure from development. One typical problem of the developing world is the need to provide more infrastructure for the fast growing population, a fact which has left little choice for local authorities but to expand the city, both inwards through densification, and outwards with consequent damage to surrounding green areas. Currently there is no evidence that green spaces are connected in this city, or that

efforts to link them have ever been initiated. Whether they are or can be connected in a particular way in order to establish either a greenways, an ecological network, , or some other form of linked urban green spaces is also another question, and one which underlies this research.