Despite the limitations of this study (the relatively small sample size, the large number variables I can’t control, and my inexperience with linguistic analysis, to name just a few), I believe there is much to be learned from a close, quantitative analysis of student texts. In the field of composition, there aren’t many studies that involve using Corpus Linguistics to study student language; though, even though for someone quite as inexperienced as myself, it’s relatively simple to begin to navigate the software the linguists use to study language. Of course, I am not trying to minimize the work it
requires to become a highly-trained corpus linguist, but in conjunction with linguists, one of my hopes is that this might inspire further work in our field with corpus linguists. While this study is obviously not going to solve the “speaking and writing” debate, it
might help to illuminate and inform our pedagogical practices. Currently, there is a strategic shift in some university curricula to get students to more fully understand real- world implications of their understanding of audience and their communities. I hope this study might provide insight into how students compose texts with spoken features in mind and how these spoken features influence or change language use.
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In looking at the data using a corpus analysis framework, certain trends emerge. While this study isn’t a full-scope Corpus Linguistics analysis, it provides some insight into how students are using language in their writing. As stated previously in the study Methodology, frequency of grammar features was normed to a count of per 1,000 words. While this sample is relatively small, on average, each essay had approximately 1,000 words. The features I picked, then, happened at least 1 or more times across each essay. Though, of course, in future studies, a analysis that examines grammar features that occur less frequently than per 1,000 words.
Similarities
As you can see in Table 4.1, below, these are the seven most commonly occuring grammar features in both types of essays. The grammar features from most frequently occurring to least frequently occuring are as follows: 1.) singular common nouns, 2.) the infinitive marker to, 3.) general prepositions, 4.) general adjectives, 5.) the article the, 6.) plural common nouns, and 7.) infinitive verbs.
Table 4.1 Similarities Between Student Essays
Singular Common Noun
It is not surprising that these texts, while different, share some of the same structure, mainly the most frequently occurring grammar features. According to the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (LGSWE), “Words can be broadly grouped into three classes according to their main functions and their grammatical behavior: lexical words, function words, and inserts” (Biber 55). Lexical words are best described as words that carry meaning in English. Function words usually carry little meaning, but they are best described as the glue that holds lexical words together. While Grammar
Feature
Description Example Raw Frequency Count (Written) Normed Frequency Count (Written) (per 1,000 words) Raw Frequency Count (Spoken) Normed Frequency Count (Spoken) (per 1,000 words) NN1 singular common noun ability, life, zombie 4,319 123 2,518 131 TO infinitive marker “to” stand, “to” see 2,037 58 1,217 63 II general preposition from, in, on 1,994 57 1,143 59 JJ general adjective ample, slight, whole 1,934 55 1,010 53 AT article the 1,645 47 957 50 NN2 plural common noun dreams, memories, students, 1,484 42 791 41
VVI infinitive to dream, may fail, will go
inserts are a newer class in English, they are words that are more frequent in spoken English that carry emotional meaning. The most common type of insert discussed in English is the interjection: for example “uh” or “um.” Insert words are a lexical class that vary greatly from speaking to writing.
As you can see, the most prevalent grammar feature in the student texts across writing and speaking are singular common nouns. Nouns are considered lexical words. LGSWE further states “there are four main classes of lexical words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs” (55). Thus, it isn’t surprising that the most common grammar feature in student texts is singular common nouns; and further, the sixth most common frequent feature is plural common nouns.
I believe in the pursuit of happiness. Think briefly about the gay community.
The song that was played at the funeral The connection I had to my father
Figure 4.1 Example of Singular Common Nouns To Infinitive Marker and the Infinitive
As the data shows, the to infinitive marker is the second most frequent grammar feature and the infinitive is the most frequently grammar feature; these two features together are two of the most highly frequently occurring grammar features in both texts. To-clauses or “infinitive clauses can have a range of syntactic roles” (LGSWE 198). While infinitive clauses function in roles other than complement clauses, in most of the
student writing in this study, infinitive clauses mostly function in the complement clause role.
See, below, Figure 4.2 for examples of infinitive verb forms in the complement clause role.
I believe that to pursue happiness To conclude, I would like to and less likely to die of any disease
She was scared to hear the truth.
Figure 4.2 Example of to-infinitive and infinitive verbs from student work
As the LGSWE explains, “Infinitivial complement clauses serve a wide range of functions: in addition to reporting speech and cognitive states, they are commonly used to report intentions, desires, efforts, perpetual states, and various other general actions” (693). To-clauses occurring frequently across texts is not strange, as to-clauses follow several high frequency verbs, such as "like" and "want." We use to-clauses as
complements to these verbs because they suggest action on the part of the subject. As LGSWE also states, “the verbs taking to-clauses in post predicate position can be usefully grouped into ten major semantic classes” (693). Figure 4.3, below, shows these semantic classes and examples.